What is Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome?

Polycystic ovarian syndrome, also known as Stein-Leventhal Syndrome or PCOS is a medical disorder affecting women's ovaries. This syndrome is characterized by the presence of numerous cysts, irregular or no menstrual periods, irregular ovulation and high levels of androgens in the body. Androgens are male hormones. These women who have PCOS have problems getting pregnant. It is now becoming a more common condition nowadays. Women with PCOS have a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes, insulin resistance, hypertension (high blood pressure), heart disease and high cholesterol. This is why women with PCOS need to be treated as soon as possible.

What happens in PCOS is that the ovaries produce excess male hormones so that small cysts form on the ovaries as a result of a lack of hormones that trigger ovulation. In these women ovulation does not occur so that these ovarian follicles remain filled with fluid and remain as cysts.

A woman with PCOS may exhibit signs and symptoms such as irregular or no menstrual periods, problems getting pregnant, hirsutism  or excessive hair growth, usually on the buttocks or back or face, hair loss (from the head), acne, pelvic pain and patches of dark skin at the back of the neck and other areas caused by too much insulin. PCOS is said to be a common cause of infertility among women. Some women who have PCOS get diagnosed only after seeing their doctor after finding out that they have problems getting pregnant. Infertility is brought about by irregular menstrual cycles.

The causes of PCOS are unknown yet many experts believe that it is caused by hormonal imbalance. The cause of PCOS is insulin resistance which further leads to higher levels of blood insulin, which in turn makes the ovaries produce too much testosterone hormone (androgens). This undermines the development of sacs in the ovaries where eggs develop (follicles), leading to abnormal or non-existent ovulation. Insulin resistance can also make women gain more weight which further makes PCOS worse. There are other hormonal imbalances in PCOS such as high testosterone levels, high luteinizing hormone levels, low sex hormone binding globulin or SHBG levels and high prolactin levels. Women with PCOS produce testosterone more than the average female. If LH levels are high, proper functioning of ovaries are disrupted. SHBG counteracts the effects of testosterone. Prolactin stimulates the production of milk in the breast glands in pregnancy. High prolactin is present only in some patients with PCOS. The cause of these hormonal imbalances are unknown however it is possible that insulin resistance also triggered hormonal imbalance.

PCOS is also an inherited condition; studies show that a woman is more likely to develop polycystic ovary syndrome if her mother, aunt or sister also has/had it. Other factors that can lead to the development of PCOS include exposure to Bisphenol A (BPA), exposure to androgens in the womb and other chemical exposures.

Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome Find Hope in Letrozole

A recent study shows that the drug letrozole results in higher birth rates in women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) than the current preferred infertility treatment drug. This study, done by researchers from the Penn State College of Medicine was able to study infertile women with PCOS between 18 and 40 years old who wanted to conceive. Women were randomly assigned to either clomiphene or letrozole and took the medications for up to five cycles, with increasing dosage each cycle. The results showed that women who received letrozole had a higher rate of live births — 27.5 percent — than those on clomiphene — 19.1 percent. In addition, ovulation rates were significantly higher with letrozole than with clomiphene at each monthly visit. The researchers were glad for this discovery so that more women can do away with the drawbacks of clomiphene such as a 22% success rate, a high multiple pregnancy rate and side effects such as hot flashes and mood changes.

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Sources

1. https://www.ovariancystmiracle.com/Ovarian-Cyst-Video.php

2. https://news.psu.edu/story/320417/2014/07/09/research/letrozole-may-help-women-pcos-become-pregnant

3. https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/ovarian-cyst/Pages/Introduction.aspx

4. https://www.womenshealth.gov/publications/our-publications/fact-sheet/ovarian-cysts.html

What is Cirrhosis?

Cirrhosis is a medical condition wherein there is irreversible scarring of the liver caused by factors such as excessive consumption of alcohol, viral hepatitis B and C, and fatty liver disease. It can give rise to signs and symptoms such as yellowing of the eyes, skin and tongue, a condition known as jaundice. It can also lead to a feeling of unexplained fatigue and itching of the skin. In patients who have long-term cirrhosis, the liver is continuously damaged over time. Scar tissue builds up in the liver, so that the liver is unable to perform its normal bodily functions. Scarred tissue can block blood flow to the liver. Cirrhosis may develop slowly all throughout the years, further compromising the normal functioning of the liver.

We know that the liver is an important organ in the body because it performs several important functions such as the detoxification of harmful substances in the body as well as in the production of important nutrients which are essential for bodily function. Cirrhosis may gradually develop over time; while mild, the liver is able to repair itself and function normally. However if cirrhosis goes far advanced, more scar tissue forms in the liver and the resultant liver damage cannot be repaired. Initially in the mild stages of liver cirrhosis, there may be no signs and symptoms; however as the disease progresses, there may be blood capillaries that appear visible on the skin on the upper abdomen. Other signs and symptoms include fatigue, insomnia, itchy skin, loss of appetite, loss of body weight, nausea, pain or tenderness in the area where the liver is located, red or blotchy palms and weakness. The abdomen may become filled with fluid, a condition known as ascites. There may be a fast heartbeat, personality changes due to toxin buildup in the brain, bleeding gums, loss of muscle mass, difficulty in processing drugs in the liver, confusion, dizziness, fluid buildup in the arms and legs or edema, hair loss, easy bruising, jaundice or yellowish discoloration of the skin and eyes, memory problems, fever, muscle cramps, nosebleeding, right shoulder pain, black and tarry stools, vomiting of blood, darker urine, and gait problems.

Cirrhosis can be caused by long-term alcohol abuse, hepatitis B and C infection, and fatty liver disease. Excessive alcohol consumption is defined as drinking alcohol for more than 21 units in men and drinking of more than 14 units per week in women. Too much alcohol consumption can lead to liver damage. Hepatitis C infection can also lead to cirrhosis, as well as hepatitis B and D. Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) occurs in people who are obese, diabetes patients, those with high blood lipid (fat) levels, as well as individuals with hypertension (high blood pressure). Excess fat in the body and in the liver as well can cause inflammation and scarring, resulting in possible cirrhosis later on. Autoimmune hepatitis can result from the attack of the person's own immune system against healthy cells. Genetic conditions such as hemochromatosis and Wilson’s disease can also lead to cirrhosis. Blockage of bile ducts as a result of cancer of the bile ducts or cancer of the pancreas can block the bile ducts, increasing the risk of cirrhosis. Other conditions that can increase the risk for cirrhosis include Budd-Chiari syndrome, cystic fibrosis, primary sclerosing cholangitis, galactosemia, schistosomiasis, biliary atresia and glycogen storage disease.

Metformin Can Help Diabetic Patients With Cirrhosis Live Longer

A recent study has shown that continuation of metformin after a cirrhosis diagnosis improved survival rates among diabetes patients. Before, doctors usually discontinue metformin once cirrhosis is diagnosed because of concerns about an increased risk of adverse effects in patients with liver problems. However the results of this study proved otherwise. In this study, about 172 patients continued taking metformin, while another 78 individuals discontinued metformin after cirrhosis diagnosis. Patients who continued taking metformin had longer survival as compared to those who discontinued metformin use. No patient developed lactic acidosis, a common side effect among patients with liver cirrhosis. This study, done by researchers from Mayo clinic, was published in the journal Hepatology.

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What Is Retinoic Acid?

Retinoid acid is a Vitamin A derivative that has various functions in the body such as the growth and maintenance of body cells and tissues. This is why all-trans retinoic acid is being manufactured in laboratories and is being used as a topical solution to treat various skin conditions such as acne; it can also be taken orally to treat certain conditions such as acute promyelocytic leukemia, a blood cancer which gives rise to too many immature blood-forming cells in the blood and bone marrow. All-trans retinoic acid is currently being studied as a supplement for other types of cancers.

Retinoic acid is also known as ATRA, retinoic acid, tretinoin, and vitamin A acid; it is the oxidized form of Vitamin A, with only partial vitamin A function. It functions in determining position along embryonic anterior/posterior axis in chordates. It acts through Hox genes in the body which controls anterior/posterior patterning in early developmental stages. It binds to heterodimers which then activates gene transcription.

Retinoic acid is the component of Vitamin A which is responsible for its activities. Once applied to the skin, it can help normalize hyperkeratinization and have demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory effects. Retinoids are potent agents that can normalize abnormal growth and differentiation in skin cells. It can also inhibit factors such as leukocyte activity, release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and other mediators, and the expression of transcription factors and toll receptors involved in immunomodulation. Thus retinoids can be used to control numerous inflammatory and keratotic dermatoses. Topical retinoids can also reduce antibiotic resistance by controlling and maintaining remission of inflammatory and noninflammatory diseases. Retinoids can also interact with nuclear receptors on cells; they can also activate genes which deal with stress.

Tretinoin is a form of retinoid which is formed in the skin from all-trans retinol by basal keratinocytes. Both all-trans retinoic acid (tretinoin) and all-trans retinol are naturally occurring retinoids. Retinoids can decrease comedone formation and microcomedo formation and thereby reduces both inflammatory and noninflammatory acne lesions. Topical retinoids reduce hyperkeratinization and allow enhanced penetration of adjunctive topical agents. Adapalene, another retinoid, heals abnormal desquamation of the skin, modulates cellular differentiation, and possesses anti-inflammatory properties. These retinoids can also reverse photodamage in the form of decreased clarity, progressive wrinkling, hyperpigmentation, roughness, and lack of tone. Improvement in skin wrinkling and roughness has been observed with long-term application of tretinoin. Retinoids may also protect the skin against damage from UVA and UVB rays. They can facilitate the ability to prevent collagen loss and stimulate new collagen formation within the papillary dermis of sun-exposed skin. More studies are actually needed for the other benefits brought about by retinoic acids.

Type 2 Diabetes and Its Complications Can Be Prevented By Retinoic Acid

A recent study made by researchers at the University of Montreal and CHUM Research Centre (CRCHUM) have demonstrated that retinoic acid can treat obesity and type 2 diabetes and prevent their cardiovascular complications. The findings were presented June 6, 2014 at the Annual Conference of the Canadian Nutrition Society in Saint John’s, Newfoundland. Tests run in obese and insulin resistant mice revealed that retinoic acid reduces the risk of cardiac apoptosis, stimulates the expression of cardio-protective genes reduced by the disease, and protects against the accumulation of collagen in the cardiac muscle, thus avoiding the occurrence of fibrosis and possible associated future complications

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What is Alzheimer's Disease?

Alzheimer's disease is a medical condition wherein there is memory loss and cognitive decline caused by death of brain cells. This disease can progressively worsen and can bring about neurodegeneration later on. In people with Alzheimer's disease, the total brain size may shrink and the brain tissue may have progressively fewer nerve cells and connections. In Alzheimer's disease, there are plaques that are found between the dying cells in the brain due to the buildup of a type of protein called beta-amyloid. There are also neurfibrillary tangles which result from the disintegration of another protein called tau.

Not all people are prone to develop Alzheimer's disease. These risk factors may either be unavoidable or avoidable. Unavoidable risk factors include older age, family history of the disease, inheritance of a certain gene called the apolipoprotein E or APOE gene and being female. Avoidable risk factors include diabetes, high cholesterol levels, hogh blood pressure levels, low educational attainment, low occupational attainment, prior head injury, sleep disorders such as sleep apnea and the use of estrogen hormone replacement therapy. In early onset Alzheimer's disease, the symptoms may start between the age 30 to 60 years old and affects people who have a family history of it.

Alzheimer's disease may give rise to several signs and symptoms which are related to the progression of the disease. The patient with Alzheimer's disease may have worsened ability to take in and remember new information. He or she may repeat questions or conversations, misplace personal belongings, forget events or appointments and get lost on a familiar route.

There may also be impairments to reasoning, complex tasking, and exercising judgment. The patient may have a poor understanding of safety risks, inability to manage finances, poor decision-making ability and inability to plan complex or sequential activities. There is also impairment of visuospatial abilities such as the inability to recognize faces or common objects or to find objects in direct view, and inability to operate simple implements, or orient clothing to the body. The patient may also have impairment of speaking, reading and writing. There may be difficulty in thinking of common words while speaking. There may also be changes in personality and behaviour such as mood changes, agitation, less interest, less motivation, apathy, social withdrawal, lack of empathy and compulsive or obsessive behaviour. These changes may have a gradual onset over months to years and may be marked by a worsening of the person's level of cognition on various areas.

Cocoa Extract May Prevent Alzheimer’s disease Progression

A recent study has shown that a certain cocoa extract called Lavado has the ability to reduce damage to nerve pathways seen in Alzheimer’s disease patients’ brains long before they develop symptoms. This study was done by Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai and published June 20 in the Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease (JAD). This study used mice which were genetically engineered to mimic Alzheimer’s disease and the results showed that Lavado cocoa extract prevents the protein ?-amyloid- (A?) from gradually forming sticky clumps in the brain, which are known to damage nerve cells as Alzheimer’s disease progresses.

This Lavado cocoa is composed mainly of polyphenols which are antioxidants found in fruits and vegetables. These polyphenols where long studied to prevent degenerative diseases of the brain. Lavado cocoa was said to be the most effective in both reducing formation of A? oligomers and reversing damage to synapses in the study mice.

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What is Celiac Disease?

Celiac disease is a medical condition that affects the digestive system due to a person's adverse reaction to   gluten. Once a person with celiac disease consumes foods with gluten, he or she experiences symptoms such as diarrhea, bloating, flatulence, abdominal pain, weight loss, fatigue, malnutrition and poor growth in children. These symptoms may either be mild or severe. There may also be indigestion, occasional changes in bowel habit such as episodes of mild diarrhoea or constipation, anemia, loss of appetite, tingling and numbness in the hands and feet, vomiting and alopecia. These symptoms are intermittent, meaning that they start and stop every now and then.

The diagnosis of celiac disease may be delayed due to its vague symptoms. In cases of severe celiac disease, there may be diarrhoea which may occur suddenly during the night along with bowel incontinence, weight loss, stomach cramps, muscle spasms, and swelling of the hands and feet due to edema. The stools may contain abnormally high levels of fat (steatorrhoea) so that they may become foul-smelling, frothy and greasy. These stools may become difficult to flush down the toilet. If celiac disease is not treated right away, it may bring about malnourishment, fatigue and lack of energy. Children can become malnourished and may have slow growth both in terms of height and weight; they may also have delayed puberty.

Celiac disease is a medical condition caused by autoimmunity. Autoimmunity means the body's antibodies are attacking its own cells instead of foreign bodies. Celiac disease is not always caused by allergy or intolerance to gluten. The immune system destroys things that contain substances similar to gluten so that the small intestines are damaged. Thus further disrupts the body's ability to absorb nutrients from food.

Gluten is found in foods such as bread, pasta, cereals and biscuits; when a person eats these foods containing gluten, he or she experiences the unpleasant signs and symptoms of celiac disease. These foods make the surface of the intestine become swollen and red. Normally, the surface of the intestine is covered by millions of tiny tube-shaped growths called villi. Villi increase the surface area of the gut and help it digest food more effectively. Celiac disease leads to damage and inflammation of the small intestines which further flatten out the villi, further reducing their ability to digest food.

Not all people are prone to develop celiac disease. Those at risk include those who have a close relative who have the condition, environmental triggers such as a previous infection of the digestive system (such as a rotavirus infection) or diet during early childhood, type 1 diabetes, ulcerative colitis (a digestive condition that causes inflammation of the colon), and neurological disorders which affect the brain and nervous system such as epilepsy.

Gluten is a protein found in cereals such as wheat, barley and rye. It may be found in foods that contain the said cereals such as pasta, cakes, breakfast cereals, most types of bread, certain types of sauces and some types of ready meals. Most beers are made from barley, thus they can cause symptoms of celiac disease.

Gluten-free Diet May Improve Cognition in Celiac Disease Patients

A recent study has shown that people who have celiac disease who stick to a gluten-free diet may have improvements in cognition that may correlate with intestinal healing. These patients may have improvements in attention, memory, and other mental tasks. The findings of this study were published in the journal Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics. The researchers indicated that having a gluten-free diet can lead not just to physical well-being but also to mental well-being.

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What Is Macular Degeneration?

Macular degeneration is an eye condition which affects the central portion of the retina. Though painless, there may be deterioration of the central portion of the retina leading to its dysfunction. The retina is the part of the eye which is light-sensitive and is located at the back of the eye. It records images like a camera and sends these images via the optic nerve from the eye to the brain. The retina has the ability of converting light images into electrical impulses through a chemical reaction. The retina then sends these impulses or signal, to the brain, where we interpret what we see, process the visual information, and relate what we see to the rest of our environment.

The macula is a small part of the retina that is located on its central portion. This part of the retina is responsible for central vision and for the ability to see fine detail of things straight ahead of us. The macula functions when we read, drive a car, or recognize faces or colors. The non-macular areas of the retina provide us with our side vision and best night vision.

Age related macular degeneration or AMD is the most common type of macular degeneration. This disease is associated with aging and can destroy sharp vision which is essential in seeing objects clearly and for common daily tasks such as reading and driving. There may be gradual progression of AMD so that the patient often notices little change in their vision, yet in some, there may be a faster advancement of the disease in such a way that in a short period of time, there may be loss of vision in both eyes.

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There are two types of macular degeneration. Wet AMD is not common but is said to be more aggressive in progressing towards severe central vision loss. Dry AMD on the other hand is the more common type and is more slowly progressive in causing visual loss. Wet AMD happens when there is growth of abnormal blood vessels from the choroid layer or the layer of blood vessels in the middle of the retina and the sclera of the eye and in the macula of the retina. This growth of new blood vessels is also known as choroidal neovascularization or CNV can lead to the development of very fragile blood vessels which often leak blood and fluid. The blood and fluid often raise the macula from its normal place at the back of the eye and interfere with the retina’s function and causes the central vision to blur. This can cause rapid and severe vision loss. This is why periodic eye examinations are needed by patients with choroidal neovascularisation. All wet AMD is described as advanced AMD, whether or not there is serious visual loss.

Dry age-related macular degeneration is due to the slow breakdown of the light-sensitive cells in the macula. Central vision decreases due to malfunction of the macula. Dry AMD often occurs in just one eye at first. Later, the other eye can be affected. The cause of dry AMD is unknown. There are three stages of dry AMD: early, intermediate and advanced. Early AMD have either several small or a few medium-sized yellowish deposits in the eyes called drusen. Those with intermediate AMD have either many medium-sized drusen or one or more large drusen. Some people see a blurred spot in the center of their vision. More light may be needed for reading and other tasks. In advanced dry AMD there is a breakdown of light-sensitive cells and supporting tissue in the central retinal area.

Omega-3 May Benefit Patients with AMD

A recent study by researchers from Massachusetts Eye and Ear/Schepens Eye Research Institute, Harvard Medical School and other institutions have demonstrated for the first time that the omega-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs), DHA and EPA, and their specific bioactive products derived from the cytochrome P450 (CYP) pathway, can influence choroidal neovascularization (CNV) and vascular leakage by modulating micro-environmental immune cell recruitment to the site of these lesions. Their findings will be published in PNAS Online Early Edition the week of June 16-20, 2014. Thus omega-3 may be a promising supplement for people with age-related macular degeneration.

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What is Caffeine?

Caffeine is a substance which is considered to be a stimulant found in various seeds, leaves and fruits of some plants. In plants it acts as a natural pesticide that paralyzes and kills certain insects feeding on the plants; it also enhances the reward memory of pollinators. It is a bitter, white crystalline xanthine alkaloid which is extracted from the seeds of the coffee plant and the tea leaves and as well as other drinks made from the kola nut. It is often infused as a drink taken by people. Other sources of caffeine include yerba maté, guarana berries, guayusa, and the yaupon holly.

Once it has entered the body, caffeine acts as a central nervous system stimulant which can eliminate drowsiness and restore alertness. It is a psychoactive drug yet only a few people know it is. Some studies have actually shown that caffeine may have a protective effect against diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, heart disease, and certain types of cancer. Sleep disruption may occur after consumption of caffeine in some sensitive people. Health experts say that pregnant women should limit their coffee consumption to about two cups per day. It is said that caffeine can affect blood pressure and can bring about increased urinary frequency. Tolerance may result to increased and regular consumption of caffeine may lead to tolerance. After heavy use, there may be several autonomic effects such as elevated heart rate and muscle twitching, but not to the cognitive or arousal effects of caffeine.

Caffeine stimulates the central nervous system and the body's metabolism. It can reduce physical fatigue and restores alertness when drowsiness occurs. It can make one feel awake, alert, have clearer thought, increased focus and increased coordination. It also seems to improve performance even when one is derived of sleep. Athletes are also known to benefit from caffeine intake with improved strength, endurance and performance. However one should be careful of consuming excessive caffeine because they may develop a condition called caffeinism. Caffeinism is a condition wherein one is dependent on caffeine consumption along with a wide range of unpleasant signs and symptoms such as nervousness, irritability, restlessness, insomnia, headaches, and heart palpitations.

As to its benefits, caffeine is said to lower the risk for cancers. Experts attribute this to a decrease on the reisls for endometrial and hepatocellular cancers as well as colorectal cancers. However some experts say that heavy coffee consumption can increase the risk for bladder cancers. It may also decrease the risk for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes. Moderate consumption cannot increase the risk for hypertension however heavy consumption can increase blood pressure. Caffeine is said to protect people from liver cirrhosis yet it can also increase intraocular pressure in people with glaucoma. Caffeine can also relieve asthmatic symptoms by being a weak bronchodilator and may also treat other breathing disorders. Caffeine treatment is also said to be neuroprotective and it is said by some experts that children exposed to caffeine are less likely to have cerebral palsy as well as language and cognitive delays.

Post-pubertal Girls and Boys May React to Caffeine Differently

A recent study done by researchers from  University at Buffalo School of Public Health and Health Professions has shown that after puberty, boys and girls experience different heart rate and blood pressure changes after consuming acaffeine. Girls also experience some differences in caffeine effect during their menstrual cycles. This study will be published in the July 2014 edition of the journal Pediatrics. The researchers have found a relationship between gender and caffeine dose, with boys having a greater response to caffeine than girls, as well as interactions between pubertal phase, gender and caffeine dose, with gender differences present in post-pubertal, but not in pre-pubertal, participants. This study is useful because it may recommend certain guidelines regarding the use of caffeine among children and teenagers.

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What is Glaucoma?

Glaucoma is an eye disease which can cause the fluid pressure of the eye to rise. This can lead to loss of vision and blindness if not treated early. This disease can affect both eyes yet the signs and symptoms may vary in each eye. In understanding glaucoma, let us first review the anatomy of the eye. In the front of the eye there is a small space called the anterior chamber where clear fluid flows in and out. This fluid nourishes and bathes the cells of the eye and the surrounding tissues. In glaucoma, this fluid does not drain properly or it drains too slowly out of the eye. The fluid then builds up and pressure inside the eye rises. High eye pressure can lead to damage of the optic nerve and other parts of the eye, leading to loss of vision. There are two types of glaucoma: open angle and closed angle (angle closure) glaucoma. The angle is being referred to is the trabecular meshwork where the fluid escapes from the area between the iris and the cornea. The angle is lined by cells called trabeculocytes. Fluid then drains into a set of tubes known as Schlemm’s canal and further flow out into the bloodstream. In closed angle glaucoma, the patient suddenly experiences pain and rapid vision loss. On the other hand, primary open angle glaucoma or chronic glaucoma progresses very slowly with little or no symptoms, leading to a delayed diagnosis, when permanent damage has already occurred. Low tension glaucoma is another type of glaucoma with normal eye pressure yet with damage to the optic nerve. Experts believe that this may be due to oversensitivity of the optic nerve or atherosclerosis in the blood vessel that supplies the optic nerve. Pigment glaucoma usually develops during early or middle adulthood. It is caused by pigment granules which are dispersed within the eye. These pigment granules build up in the trabecular meshwork and lead to a rise in eye pressure. Glaucoma may also be due to another disease such as a tumor, diabetes, an advanced cataract, or inflammation. The signs and symptoms of primary open angle glaucoma are different from that of acute angle-closure glaucoma. In primary open-angle glaucoma, peripheral vision is lost in both eyes, which later on may give rise to tunnel vision. On the other hand, closed angle glaucoma can give rise to signs and symptoms such as severe eye pain, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, lights often appear to have extra halo-like glows around them, red eyes and sudden vision problems especially in poor lighting. Risk factors for glaucoma include older age (age 60 years or above), ethnic background, some illnesses such as diabetes or hypertension, eye injuries, retinal detachment, eye inflammations, eye tumors, eye surgery, nearsightedness and use of corticosteroids. Glaucoma is often diagnosed by tests such as the eye pressure test (tonometry), gonioscopy, perimetry test, and test for optic nerve damage.

Children Can Acquire Glaucoma

One case at the Loyola University Medical Center involved a six-week old infant who had glaucoma and other congenital eye problems that were threatening his vision. This was confirmed by experts from the hospital who stabilized the child's vision by tiny devices that drained fluid from his eyes. Another Loyola ophthalmologist removed cataracts and scar tissue that also were threatening his vision. Now the child is a year and a half old and can see yet he needs to wear glasses. The doctors advise any mother to bring their child for evaluation if they notice anything unusual with the child's eyes. In this case, the doctor implanted a tiny silicon tubing in each eye. The device, regulated by a valve, drains fluid from the eye and has saved the child's eyesight. For more medical breakthroughs, feel free to read our other articles on this site.

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What is Breast Cancer?

Breast cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the breast. The breast is an organ which contains fat, connective tissue and lobules which produce milk. Milk is produced in these lobules and goes through tiny tubes or ducts that conduct milk through the nipple. The breast contains billions of cells that multiple in an orderly fashion. Dead or damaged cells are usually replaced by new ones. If the breast is affected by cancer, its cells multiply uncontrollably and cells may clump together to form a mass or a tumor. Cancer that begins in the lactiferous duct or the milk duct is often known as ductal carcinoma and is the most common type of breast cancer. Lobular carcinoma, a type of cancer that starts in the lobules is less common.

The causes of breast cancer are still unknown however there are some people who are more predisposed to breast cancer than other people. Some risk factors include older age, genes (women who have relatives who had breast cancer are also prone to develop breast cancer), carriers of BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes as well as the TP53 gene, a history of breast cancer, having certain types of breast lumps, dense breast tissue, exposure to estrogen, obesity, taller height, increased alcohol consumption, radiation exposure, HRT (hormone replacement therapy) and certain jobs such as those involving night shifts.

Breast cancer may give rise to various signs and symptoms. Early signs and symptoms usually involve an area of thickened tissue in the woman's breast or a lump. Majority of the lumps are cancerous; these lumps should be checked by a health care professional. Other signs and symptoms which may warrant consult to a physician include pain in the armpits or breast that does not seem to be related to the woman’s menstrual period, pitting or redness of the skin of the breast (orange peel), a rash around or on one of the nipples, swelling (lump) in one of the armpits, an area of thickened tissue in a breast, nipple discharge which may be bloody, sunken or inverted nipples, changes in the size or the shape of the breast, and peeling or flaking of the nipple skin or breast skin.

Diagnosis of breast cancer usually begins during a routine breast cancer screening, or after detecting certain signs and symptoms. This may be accomplished through breast examination, x-ray or mammogram, breast ultrasound, biopsy, and breast MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) scan. Once cancer is diagnosed, it should be staged as to the extent of the tumor. Breast cancer can be prevented using several lifestyle changes such as drinking alcohol in moderation or avoiding alcohol consumption, physical exercise, consuming a healthy diet, consuming fish oils, postmenopausal hormone therapy, and maintaining a healthy weight.

Breast Cancer Prognostic Testing Gives False Negative Results

A recent study done by researchers from the Dartmouth-Hitchcock Norris Cotton Cancer Center has found out that conventional way HER2 testing may have important limitations. This study tumor samples from a large group of women and found that 22 out of 530 women had their tumor type incorrectly classified. They reported their findings in a publication titled “Assessing the Discordance Rate between Local and Central HER2 Testing in Women with Locally Determined HER2-Negative Breast Cancer,” which was published in Cancer on June 13, 2014. The analysis was based on the VIRGO study, a large, disease-based, observational cohort study of more than 1,200 women with HER2-negative metastatic breast cancer from June 2008 through January 2011. Out of the 1,267 patients enrolled in VIRGO, 776 submitted samples for this study from which 552 were suitable for centralized testing using IHC and FISH assays.

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What is Ovarian Cancer?

 Ovarian cancer is a type of cancer that involves the ovaries. The ovary is the female gland for reproduction. In it are found egg cells which later on become fertilized in the uterus to form an embryo. A pair of ovaries is located in each side of the uterus or womb. The ovaries are the organs responsible for the production of female hormones estrogen and progesterone. These hormones are responsible for regulating the menstrual cycle as well as pregnancy and the development of female characteristics such as body shape, body hair, breasts, etc. Every month, one egg is released from either of the two ovaries. The egg then travels through the fallopian tube and into the uterus. This is known as ovulation.

In ovarian cancer, the ovaries are affected by cancer as well as the surrounding areas such as such as the stomach, vagina and uterus. Ovarian cancer more commonly occurs in women aged 65 or over, but can affect women of any age. Cancer occurs when cells grow out of control until it forms a mass of cells called a tumor. Tumors that stay in one place and have limited growth are called benign tumors. On the other hand, those tumors that invade other parts of the body through the blood or the lymphatic systems and destroy healthy tissue while creating new blood vessels are known as malignant tumors. Tumors that spread to other parts of the body and grow are known as metastatic tumors. They tumors can invade and destroy healthy tissue. When the tumor metastasizes, it becomes difficult to treat.

Ovarian cancer can arise anywhere in the ovary; most commonly it can arise from the epithelium or the outer lining fo the ovary. Ovarian is one of the most common cancers among females. There are three types of ovarian cancers: epithelial ovarian cancer, germ cell ovarian cancer and stromal ovarian cancer. Epithelial ovarian cancer usually arises from the surface of the ovary, while germ cell ovarian cancer is derived from the egg-producing cells within the body of the ovary. Stromal ovarian cancer on the other hand develops within the cells that hold the ovaries together. Metastic ovarian cancers are cancers from other parts of the body that have spread to the ovaries.

Initially there may be vague or no symptoms of ovarian cancer; however there may be gradual worsening of symptoms. Earlier symptoms may include pain in the pelvis, pain on the lower side of the body, pain in the lower stomach, back pain, indigestion or heartburn, feeling full rapidly when eating, more frequent and urgent urination, pain during sexual intercourse and changes in bowel habits, such as constipation. As ovarian cancer progresses, there may be nausea, weight loss, breathlessness, fatigue (tiredness) and loss of appetite.

There are women who have certain risk factors which can lead to an increased risk for ovarian cancer. One is family history. Women with close relatives who have/had ovarian cancer, as well as breast, colon, prostate or uterine cancers, have a higher risk of developing ovarian cancer compared to other women. Also majority of women who have ovarian cancers are over 65 years of age. Women who have never been pregnant, who have never taken contraceptive pills, who started their periods at an early age,  and whose menopause have started at a later age than average are at a higher risk of developing ovarian cancer.

 New Treatment for Ovarian Cancer Discovered

Recently, researchers from the University of Arizona Cancer Center at St. Joseph’s Hospital and Medical Center in Phoenix reported in Lancet Oncology that a new treatment for ovarian cancer can improve response rates (increase the rate of tumor shrinkage) and prolong the time until cancers recur. This drug, known as Trebananib (formally known as AMG 386; Amgen) is a first-in-class peptide-Fc fusion protein (or peptibody) that targets angiogenesis (the growth of new blood vessels into cancerous tumors) by inhibiting the binding of both angiopoietin 1 and 2 to the Tie2 receptor. This is very different mechanism of action than other agents that also effect angiogenesis by inhibiting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) such as bevacizumab (Avastin; Genentech). This drug also does not increase the risks of hypertension (high blood pressure) and bowel perforation like bevaciuzmab, but still has a similar impact on tumor shrinkage and delaying cancer progression.

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