Preterm labor can bring dangers to both the mother and the baby. But what is it and what is its cause?

Preterm Labor and Preterm Birth

Preterm labor is marked by the contractions of the uterus which occur before the mother is due, or before 37 weeks of pregnancy. This may ensue due to thinning of the cervix or effacement and dilatation of the cervix so that the fetus can enter the birth canal. Preterm labor can result to preterm birth, which is birth that occurs between 20 weeks of pregnancy to 37 weeks of pregnancy. Preterm labor and preterm birth is a growing health concern because it results to babies who are born early or who are premature. Premature babies often suffer from serious health problems because their bodies cannot fully function because of underdevelopment. Premature babies who survive often have learning disabilities and other health problems such as cerebral palsy. The risk for these health problems occur often in babies who are born before 34 weeks of pregnancy, however these problems may also affect babies born between 34 weeks and 37 weeks. �Premature babies can even die as a result of preterm births.

There are some risk factors which can give rise to preterm labours and births. These factors include previous preterm births, having a short cervix, having a short interval of time in between pregnancies, history of previous surgeries in the uterus or cervix, multiple pregnancies, pregnancy complications such as vaginal bleeding, underweight mother, smoking during pregnancy and substance abuse during pregnancy.

Mothers who are at high risk for preterm birth can benefit from regular doctor checkups. Medications can be given to help prevent preterm labor and preterm birth. The mother should watch out for signs and symptoms of preterm labor and preterm birth such as changes in type of vaginal discharge (whether it is watery, mucus, or bloody), increase in the amount of discharge, pelvic or lower abdominal pressure, backache which is constant or dull, mild abdominal cramps with or without diarrhea, regular or frequent contractions or uterine tightening, and ruptured bag of water (ruptured membranes). The doctor may then establish a diagnosis or preterm labor by examining the cervix for changes. Contractions may also be monitored and tests may be ordered such as transvaginal ultrasound. However, not all women who experience premature labor can have premature births. Only about 10 percent of women who have preterm labor will give birth within the next 7 days.

Preterm Labor and Mother's Diet

Because of the serious medical problems that a premature baby can experience, premature birth should be prevented as early as possible. A recent study has found out that pregnant women who eat a diet rich in fruits, vegetables and whole grains and those who drink a lot of water have a reduced risk of having premature deliveries. Those who eat boiled potatoes, fish and cooked vegetables were also associated with a low risk of having premature labor. This study done by researchers based in Sweden, Norway and Iceland examined the rink between maternal diet and preterm labor. The researchers used data from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study which were from about 66,000 women who were studied between 2002 and 2008. Among the 66,000 pregnant women, preterm delivery occurred in 3,505 (5.3%) cases. The researchers found out that a diet rich in fruits and vegetables was associated with a significantly reduced risk of preterm delivery, especially among women having their first baby, as well as spontaneous and late preterm delivery. More studies are needed to actually establish the link between preterm labor and good nutrition of mothers.

If you want to know more on how to be healthy during pregnancy, feel free to browse our other articles on this site.

Heart disease is one of the top killers around the world, and one of the causes of heart disease is an irregular heart rhythm. One of the common irregular rhythms is atrial fibrillation. But what is atrial fibrillation and how can you treat it?

Atrial Fibrillation

For us to understand more about atrial fibrillation, let us first review the relevant anatomy and physiology of the heart. The heart consists of two upper chambers and two lower chambers called the atrium and the ventricles respectively. Atrial fibrillation results when these two chambers contract excessively and irregularly. This is the most common form of irregular rhythm or arrhythmia of the heart. This disorder means that there is a disorder in the electrical system of the heart.

Irregularities of the heart rhythm or arrhythmias occur when a part of the heart known as the atrioventricular node discharges too many impulses leading to irregular contractions of the ventricles. This makes a person with atrial fibrillation have an irregular and unusually high heart rate.

There are three types of atrial fibrillation:�paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, persistent long-standing atrial fibrillation and long-standing�persistent atrial fibrillation. Paroxysmal atrial fibrillation is a type of arrhythmia wherein the fast heart rhythm begins suddenly and then also suddenly stops on its own. This type arrhythmia commonly originates from the junction of the pulmonary veins within the left atrium. Persistent atrial fibrillation, on the other hand stops only when the patient receives treatment. Long standing persistent atrial fibrillation occurs when the arrhythmia can longer be restored to normal rhythm by various treatments. �Atrial fibrillation can occur suddenly or may also occur just right after surgery. All of these types require prompt treatment.

Atrial fibrillation�usually has its own signs and symptoms. A patient with atrial fibrillation may experience a faster-than-usual heart beat which is over 140 beats per minute. These patients may also feel other signs and symptoms such as dizziness, light-headedness, confusion, palpitations, breathlessness, chest pain, or low blood pressure. People with long-standing atrial fibrillation may have heart failure and disorders of the heart muscle. However, in some people with atrial fibrillation, there may be no signs and symptoms.

Atrial fibrillation may have various causes. It may be caused by older age, however it may occur in younger patients if they have an underlying heart condition. Atrial fibrillation can be caused by high blood pressure, diseases of the blood vessels of the heart, congenital heart disease, mitral valve disease of the heart, cardiomyopathy or diseases of the heart muscle, pericarditis or inflammation of the coverings of the heart, previous heart surgery, hyperthyroidism, sleep apnea, alcohol abuse, smoking, excessive caffeine consumption, atrial flutter and lung and chest conditions such as pneumonia, emphysema, lung cancer, chest infections, pulmonary embolism and carbon monoxide poisoning. Atrial fibrillation is diagnosed by an electrocardiogram, holter monitoring, event recording, echocardiogram and other tests.

Alcohol and Atrial Fibrillation

A recent study done by researchers from the Houston Methodist DeBakey Heart & Vascular Center have found out that adding a little alcohol to minimally invasive therapies for atrial fibrillation can dull or stop the transmission of electrical impulses that cause atrial fibrillation. The results of this study were published in the online Journal of the American College of Cardiology. In this study, the researchers have found out that adding four or fewer injections of 98 percent ethanol to the catheter-aided radio wave ablation of nerve clusters near the vein of Marshall was enough to damage or kill the nerves. This eliminates the need to artificially trigger atrial fibrillation using electricity. The respondents were then examined for their blood alcohol concentrations and were detected to have no alcohol. There were also no complications.

To know more about other heart problems and their treatment, you can browse our other articles on this site.

All of us want to store good memories in our minds. But what is memory?

Memory

Memory is the process by which information is being processed, stored and retrieved later on. One we receive information through our brain and nerves, the information get encoded. After encoding, information needs to be stored so that we will keep this information for a long time. The final process is the retrieval of information that was stored. Information is received and returned to our consciousness so that we may experience the memory. However, there may be instances when there is loss of memory. This is termed as amnesia.

There are many types of memory. Sensory memory is a type of memory related to sensory information. It only holds memory for a short period of time i.e. for a few seconds or even less than that. This is the type of memory at work when we look at objects and remember it. Sensory memory is also of three types: iconic memory or memory which briefly stores an image being perceived for a short duration; echoic memory which is a type of auditory memory that briefly stores sounds, and haptic memory which is a type of memory for touch stimuli.

Another type of memory is short-term memory. Short term memory is the type of memory involved with the recall of things for several seconds to minutes Past experiments have shown that the storage of short-term memory was 7�2 items. However, memory capacity in short-term memory can be increased through chunking�into short pieces of information, like chunking telephone numbers into three digits. Short term memory is also said to rely mostly on an acoustic code for storing information and lesser on a visual code.

Long-term memory, on the other hand, can store larger quantities of information for an unlimited duration. It has an interestingly immeasurable capacity for storing memories. Long-term memory is of two types: declarative and procedural. Declarative memory includes memories which are available in consciousness and can be divided into episodic (specific events) memory and semantic memory (knowledge about the world around us). Procedural memory is involved with memories of body movement and how to use objects in the environment such as how to drive a car etc.

Memory and Schizophrenia

There are many conditions which can give rise to deficits in memory, including psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia. In a recent study, Basel scientists have identified genes that can control important functions of neurons such as brain activity, memory and schizophrenia development. In this study researchers analyzed the genetic basis of memory in 2800 healthy people. Their studies revealed that the group of voltage-gated ion channels regulate electric excitability of neurons. The researchers also studies brain activity in 700 healthy participants via functional imaging while these people were solving working tasks. The genes of the ion channels correlated with the activities of the cerebrum and the cerebellum. In previous studies, it had been found out that these two regions of the brain are important for good functioning of memory. These brain regions, when malfunctioned, can also lead to the development of schizophrenia. Indeed, there is a link between memory problems and schizophrenia, and perhaps there are also links to other psychiatric disorders.

The researchers think that the results of this study are a good starting point in discovering new drugs for memory and psychiatric disorders. Drugs being developed for schizophrenia should also aim to treat memory problems because these two disorders have the same root causes. Can disorders of memory predispose to schizophrenia? We are not sure.

If you want to learn more about schizophrenia and other mental disorders, you may read our other articles on this site.

What is ADHD?

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder�or ADHD is a common disorder of behaviour among children which can extend until adulthood. Thus it is also termed as a neuro developmental disorder of behaviour. A child or an adult with ADHD may often show difficulty of adapting to a particular situation and may not have control of what he or she is about to say or do. He or she may appear reckless, impulsive or restless. A child with ADHD is often hyperactive and has difficulty concentrating. He or she may also manifest hyperkinetic disorders and hyperactivity. It is said that ADHD is linked to other diseases such as schizophrenia, major depressive disorder, bipolar disorder, and autism spectrum disorders.

There are three types of ADHD: the predominantly inattentive type, the predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type and the combined type. The predominantly inattentive type has difficulty with organization or finishing a task. He or she has difficulty in following instructions or conversations. The predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type finds it hard to keep still by fidgeting and talking a lot. He may constantly by running, jumping about or climbing. He or she may be impulsive and restless and may grab things, interrupt others and speaking at inappropriate times. These children find it hard to listen to directions and cannot wait for their turn, thus being more prone to more accidents and injuries. The combined type is also inattentive and restless like the other two types and had both the symptoms of the former two types.

Signs and symptoms that may point to ADHD in a child include restlessness, hyperactivity, being fidgety, continuous interruption to people, lack of concentration in performing tasks, inattentiveness, and have difficulty in waiting for his or her turn.

The causes of ADHD are quite unknown. It is said that the risk for this disorder increases with genetics, sex (more common in boys), and biological and chemical imbalances in the brain. There are some studies which point out those food additives such as colourings may contribute to ADHD behaviours. Mercury exposure during pregnancy can also be a risk factor. ADHD can be diagnosed by a psychiatrist, a pediatrician�or a psychologist. The doctor will first gather data regarding the child's behaviour at home and at school and identify behaviour pattern types. An electroencephalogram or EEG can also help in accurately diagnosing ADHD in children. Usually, the symptoms of ADHD begin before age 7 and can further progress on unto adulthood. Hyperactivity usually decreases as the person gets older.

Acetaminophen and ADHD Risk

Acetaminophen is a drug found in over the counter products for fever, colds and pains such as Tylenol. It is an antipyretic and an analgesic for fever and pain. It was once prescribed to pregnant females because experts claimed that acetaminophen may not have harmful effects on the unborn baby and the mother as well. However, recent news has it that the intake of acetaminophen during pregnancy can bring about a higher risk in children of ADHD. This study done by researchers from UCLA and from the University of Aarhus in Denmark have shown that taking acetaminophen during pregnancy can bring about risks to the harmful fetus, questioning whether acetaminophen is indeed safe to use among pregnant women. The researchers used data from the Danish National Birth Cohort which was a nationwide study on children and pregnancies and the various complications and diseases resulting from several factors. Data gathered from 64,322 children and mothers who were enrolled in the Danish cohort from 1996 to 2002 showed that more than half of the pregnant women studied used acetaminophen during pregnancy. Children who were born to mothers who used acetaminophen had a 13 percent to 37 percent higher risk of having hyperkinetic disorders such as ADHD starting at age 7. The risk rose to 50 percent or more in mothers who used acetaminophen for more than 20 weeks of gestation. It is theorized that acetaminophen may have effects on the unborn baby by crossing the placental barrier.

For more articles on pregnancy, feel free to read more articles on this site.

Every once in a while, we may be exposed to secondhand smoke. Yet little do we know about the dangers that may lie waiting for us. A recent study has found out that secondhand smoke exposure can lead to adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Secondhand Smoke and Its Dangers

Secondhand smoke is smoke which is a combination of cigarette smoke from the burning cigarette and smoke exhaled by the smoker. Studies have shown that secondhand smoke is just as deadly as smoking cigarettes. There are two types of secondhand smoke: side stream smoke which comes from the burning tobacco and mainstream smoke which the smoker inhales. It is said that smoke from the burning tobacco is more harmful compared to smoke inhaled by the smoker, so that secondhand smoke is deadlier than smoking cigarettes directly. Tobacco smoke smelled by passersby is not filtered and contains many harmful substances.

A non-smoker who is regularly exposed to secondhand smoke can absorb into his body a considerable amount of nicotine and other harmful substances. It is said that tobacco smoke contains more than 4000 chemical compounds which may be toxic to our health. These toxins may linger in the air for about four hours and can affect people who breathe air. It is said that after 5 minutes of exposure to this air, there may be stiffening of the aorta, and after 20 to 30 minutes, there may be excess blood clotting, increased build-up of fatty deposits in the blood vessels and increase in the risk for stroke and heart attack. After two hours, there may be irregular heartbeats and this may trigger a heart attacks or any other cardiac event. The risk for certain diseases also increases with prolonged exposure to secondhand smoke. Lung cancers and lung disease such as COPD, asthma and emphysema may take place. Other diseases that may surface out include heart disease, eye irritation, nasal irritation, sinus infections and respiratory infections.

Those who are at greater risk for secondhand smoke dangers include workers in the service industry such as waiters and bartenders because they may be exposed to cigarette smoke from customers. They have the risk of absorbing carcinogens from the environment. Pregnant women are also at risk for acquiring dangers secondhand smoke, as well as their babies. Smoke exposure can give rise to pregnancy related problems such as placenta previa or low-lying placenta, placental abruption, miscarriage, ectopic pregnancy and stillbirth. Exposure to secondhand smoke can decrease the amount of oxygen that is available to the baby and the mother, thus it can lead to increases in the child's heart rate and increase in the risk for prematurity or low birth weight.

Infants and children who are always exposed to smoke may have problems such as frequent colds and respiratory infections, slow or incomplete lung growth and development, asthma, chronic cough, recurrent ear infections, sudden infant death syndrome, learning and behaviour problems, cataracts, poor oral health, risk for smoking later on in life and increased risk for tumours and cancers.

Secondhand Smoke and Pregnancy

A recent study from researchers at the Roswell Park Cancer Institute (RPCI) and the University at Buffalo (UB) revealed that secondhand smoke is associated with pregnancy loss, stillbirths, miscarriage and tubal ectopic pregnancies. The results of this study are published in the journal Tobacco Control and correlated pregnancy outcome with secondhand smoke. In this study, lifetime secondhand smoke exposure was studied lifetime in subjects and the comparison group of never-smokers was limited to women without any secondhand smoke exposure. The study gathered data from around 80,762 women and observed reproductive data, current and former smoking status and details about secondhand smoke exposure for a lifetime. It was shown that women with high exposure to secondhand smoke had greater risk for adverse pregnancy outcomes. This study further suggests that pregnant women should avoid secondhand smoke to avoid any pregnancy related problems.

To know more about the dangers of smoking, feel free to read our other articles on this site.

It's not uncommon for us to experience back pain every now and then. Back pain is a common complaint. It is also a common cause of absences from work or from school and a cause of frequent doctor visits. Although it is painful and may also be uncomfortable, it is usually not serious.

Facts About Back Pain

Back pain can occur at any age, yet it is more common among people aged 35 years old to 55 years old. Back pain can stem from illnesses affecting our bones, joints, ligaments and muscles. These illnesses may include those affecting the spine, the vertebral discs, the spinal cord and nerves, the internal organs in the pelvis, the abdomen, and the structures in the lumbar area. It can also be due to diseases of the aorta, chest, and trunk.

There are people who are more predisposed to back pain than most people. These people have risk factors for back pain which includes stress, pregnancy, a sedentary lifestyle, older age, anxiety, depression, female gender, obesity or overweight, smoking, strenuous physical exercise, and strenuous physical work.

Back pain may have a variety of other symptoms aside from ache or pain in the lumbar area. Other symptoms that may warrant a visit to the doctor include weight loss, fever, inflammation of the back, leg pain, knee pain, back trauma, urinary incontinence, difficulty in urination, fecal incontinence, numbness in the anus and pelvis, and numbness in the buttocks and in the genitals. Back pain should be consulted with a physician if the patients are less than 20 and more than 55 years of age, if they have been taking steroids for a few months, if they are drug abusers, if they have cancers, and if they have low immune systems.

Causes of back pain include muscle strain, ligament strain, heavy weight, muscle spasm, sudden abrupt movement, ruptured disks, bulging disks, sciatica, arthritis, abnormal curvature of the spine, and osteoporosis. Other causes include cauda�equina syndrome, infections of the spine, cancer of the spine, sleep disorders, shingles, bad mattress and infections such as pelvic inflammatory disease (females) and bladder or kidney infections. Poor posture can also contribute to back pain.

If the doctor suspects something, he can order some tests for the evaluation of back pain�such as x-rays, computerized tomography, magnetic resonance imaging, bone scans, electromyography�or EMG�and blood tests. There are several treatment options for back pain, though it may often resolve by itself with just home treatment and careful attention. The pain can usually go away with over-the-counter medicines and adequate rest for a few days. If the back pain won't go away with these simple remedies, the doctor may prescribe an NSAID (nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug), tricyclic antidepressants and physical therapy. Heat, ice, ultrasound and electrical stimulation may also be given. The physical therapist can then do some strength and flexibility exercises that can provide benefit to the muscles and bones of the back. Cortisone injections may also help.

So how do we prevent back pain from taking charge in our lives? This is through addressing risk factors. Regular exercise can help build up strength and flexibility and can make one lose excess weight which may be the cause of back pain. Core strengthening exercises can strengthen the abdomen and back muscles while flexibility exercises improve flexibility in the hips and upper legs. Good posture should also be maintained.

Surgery and Low Back Pain

A recent study published in the February online issue of Spine shows that patients who have a low back surgery called minimally invasive transforaminal�lumbar interbody fusion have good results as compared to those who had more invasive surgery for back pain. This Beaumont study gathered data from 304 patients who received the minimally invasive procedure. Majority of these patients experienced back pain relief and were able to return to their usual daily activities with improved quality of life.

To know more about back pain, feel free to browse our other articles on this site.

Stroke can take your entire life in an instant, either by leaving you with paralysis, leaving you comatose or leaving you dead. This is why various preventive measures have been discovered and developed to help eliminate your chances of acquiring stroke. A new study shows that eating foods rich in vitamin C can decrease your chances of acquiring stroke.

Stroke

Stroke happens when the brain and its cells are deprived of oxygen. This can either be due to an obstruction in the blood vessels that bring about blood to the other parts of the brain or the rupture of arteries that are located in the brain. As a result of this, the person lose his or her ability to speak, one side of the body may be paralyzed or there may be memory problems.

There are two main types of stroke: ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke. Ischemic stroke is the most common stroke and happens when a blood clot or thrombus lodges into the blood vessels that supply the brain, shutting off its blood supply. An embolus is�a floating clot that can wander into the bloodstream and go to the brain to cut off its blood supply. On the other hand, a hemorrhagic stroke is a type of stroke that occurs when a blood vessel supplying the brain ruptures and blood fills the space between the brain and the skull. This is termed as subarachnoic�hemorrhage. In other cases, blood also extravasates into the surrounding tissue, a condition known as cerebral hemorrhage. These two types of stroke both create a lack of blood flow to the brain and a rise in pressure in the brain.

There are various risk factors for stroke. Those who are likely to have stroke have/are the following: older age, male sex, a family history of stroke, high blood pressure, high cholesterol levels, cigarette smoking, diabetes, obesity or being overweight, a previous stroke or transient ischemic attack, high levels of homocysteine and being divorced. Other risk factors include the heavy use of alcohol and depression.

If you are at risk for stroke, you should know its warning signs and symptoms so that you can get help easily. Common symptoms of stroke include trouble walking, loss of balance and coordination, dizziness, blurred vision and other vision problems, sudden and severe headache and confusion. However small strokes are termed as silent strokes and may not give out signs and symptoms at all. A transient ischemic attack may happen in the form of signs and symptoms of stroke that last for only minutes or hours. TIAs are usually caused by a temporary interruption on the brain however they usually do not cause permanent damage.

Stroke is considered a medical emergency. Anyone who shows signs and symptoms of stroke must be taken to the hospital immediately and proper management should be done. Several diagnostic methods for stroke include physical assessment, ultrasound, arteriography, computerized tomography scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), CT and MRI with angiography, echocardiography and eye-movement analyzer.

Stroke can lead to debilitation and death. This is why it should be prevented as soon as possible, especially among patients at high risk for this disorder.

Stroke and Vitamin C

A recent study has shown that eating foods rich in vitamin C may reduce your risk for hemorrhagic stroke. In this study done by researchers from Pontchaillou University Hospital in Rennes, France, 65 people who had intracerebral hemorrhagic stroke were compared to 65 healthy people. All these people were tested for vitamin C levels in their blood. The results showed that people who had stroke had depleted Vitamin C levels. Thus intake of vitamin C should be encouraged by eating foods rich in this vitamin such as citrus fruits.

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If you want to learn more on how to reduce your stroke risk, feel free to browse our other articles on this site.

The characteristic skin discolorations in psoriasis can cause embarrassment to the sufferer. A recent study reveals the deeper root cause of skin pigmentation in psoriasis, thus paving the way for more research and discovery of drugs and skin treatments that can alleviate this skin problem.

Psoriasis

Psoriasis is a skin problem which is also considered as a chronic autoimmune�disease that affects the skin. It is not contagious nor is it passed from person to person. Psoriasis is usually found in the skin of the scalp, around the ears, in the elbows, genitals, knees, navel and buttocks. It may give rise to a characteristic scaly patch known as psoriatic�patch that can occur as a result of inflammation and desquamation. It is also associated with a reddish and scaly patch that is found in the areas previously mentioned. It may later on take a silvery white appearance. Psoriasis is different from eczema in that it is more commonly found on the extensor aspect of the joint.

While psoriasis may have minor localized patches only in some patients, in others it may manifest as lesions which may be located all over the body. One common manifestation is psoriatic�nail dystrophy which is common�a manifestation in which the fingers and toenails are affected. Psoriasis may also cause inflammation of the joints and psoriatic arthritis.

The cause of psoriasis is not usually known however many experts believe that there may be a genetic component which may be triggered by skin injury. Other triggers include excessive alcohol intake, stress, smoking withdrawal of steroids and other factors. People who are usually affected belong to the ages 11 to 45 years old group. However, it can also start at any age. It is considered a chronic or a long-lasting condition.

There are several types of psoriasis: plaque, flexural, guttate, pustular, psoriatric�arthritis, erythrodermic�psoriasis and nail psoriasis. Plaque psoriasis appear as raised areas of inflammation on the skin which may have silvery white scales. Flexural�psoriasis occurs in skin folds such as armpits, genitals, under the stomach, under the breasts and buttocks. Guttate�psoriasis is characterized by red scaly patches on the skin all over the body especially in the scalp, limbs and trunk. Psoriatic�arthritis involves the inflammation of the skin and the connective tissues and joints, such as the finger and toes joints and also the knees and hips. Erythrodermic�psoriasis is a type of psoriasis which manifests as widespread inflammation and exfoliation of the skin of the surface. Nail psoriasis manifests as discoloration of the nail plate, nail pitting, nail lines and skin thickening under the nail. The signs and symptoms of psoriasis depend on the type of psoriases. It may appear as raised and inflamed red lesions with silvery scales, as yellow-red nail discoloration, widespread lesions in the scalp, chest, arms and legs, or as bright red smooth skin patches with no sliver scales.

Skin Discoloration in Psoriasis

Psoriasis, along with its other skin manifestations, may give rise to painful and itchy rashes which may subside as time goes by yet may leave dark discoloured skin areas which serve as scars. A new study has attempted to explain this discoloration. Scientists from the Milstein Medical Research Program at The Rockefeller University have uncovered the molecular basis of skin discoloration in psoriasis, which may suggest new treatments for pigmentations�in psoriasis, acne and eczema. In this study, the researchers found out that IL-17 and TNF cytokines were disturbing pigment production of melanocytes in the skin of patients with psoriasis. In people with psoriasis there is decreased gene expression of skin cells and decreased expression of genes involved with pigmentation signalling when compared to increased amounts of IL-17 and TNF. These two cytokines were also found to promote formation of melanocyte clusters so that growth-promoting cytokines are produced. Psoriatic lesions also contained more melanocytes along with high levels of IL-17 and TNF than healthy skin.

If you want to know more about psoriasis, feel free to explore our other articles on this site.

Glaucoma is an eye condition which is characterized by elevated fluid pressure within the eyes. If this is left untreated the sufferer may become blind and lose his or her sense of vision. This disease often affects both eyes and is one of the leading causes of blindness around the world. Recent reports say that the level of estrogen during menopause has something to do with the risk for acquiring glaucoma.

Glaucoma

For us to understand what glaucoma is all about, let us first review the anatomy of the eye. In the front of the eye lies a small space called the anterior chamber. The anterior chamber serves as a space where clear liquid flows in and out to bathe and nourish the nearby tissues. However, in a person with glaucoma, there is a defect in the movement of clear fluid within the anterior chamber, so that either there is little or no drainage out of the eye. As a result, fluid builds up within the eye and pressure within the eye rises. This pressure within the eye needs to be reduced as soon as possible so that there would be no damage to the optic nerve and other parts of the eye. Eye damage caused by elevated pressures within the eye can lead to loss of vision.

There are two main types of glaucoma�open angle and closed angle. The term angle� refers to the trabecular�meshwork�where the fluid in the eye flows in between the iris and the cornea. This angle is lined up by trabeculocytes. Fluid drains into the Schlemm's canal which further flows into the bloodstream. Primary open angle glaucoma is a type of glaucoma that progresses slowly, so that the sufferer may not feel any symptoms and there is gradual loss of vision that may go unnoticed. Usually, people with primary open angle glaucoma do not seek any help until there is permanent damage already.

On the other hand, closed angle glaucoma or acute angle closure glaucoma is a type of glaucoma with sudden onset of symptoms so that the patient can experience pain and rapid vision loss. This makes the sufferer seek medical help immediately so that there is prompt treatment to stop permanent damage from occurring. There are also other two types of glaucoma: low-tension glaucoma and pigmentary glaucoma. Low-tension glaucoma occurs when there is no change in pressure yet there is still optic nerve damage. Experts think that low-tension glaucoma is a result of oversensitivity of the optic nerve or atherosclerosis of the blood vessel supplying the optic nerve.

Another type of glaucoma, pigmentary glaucoma, develops during early adulthood or middle age. In this type of glaucoma, there are pigment granules that arise from the back of the iris which are dispersed within the eye. Once there is the buildup of granules within the trabecular�meshwork, the flow of fluids within the eye is affected, further leading to a rise in blood pressure. There are some factors which affect the trabecular�meshwork, such as running and other sports.

The signs and symptoms of glaucoma include loss of peripheral vision affecting both eyes, tunnel vision, severe eye pain, blurred vision, nausea, vomiting, halo-like lights in the visual fields, and other vision problems. Risks factors for glaucoma include old age, ethnic background, some illnesses, injuries, eye surgery, myopia, and the use of corticosteroids.

Glaucoma Risk and Estrogen

Recently, there is news that women who take estrogen-only hormonal replacement therapies for the relief of menopausal symptoms can reduce their risk for glaucoma. This study done by researchers from the University of Michigan evaluated more than 152, 000 women, 60,000 of which had at least one prescription for estrogen-only therapy. The researchers found out that each month of estrogen use decreased glaucoma risk by 0.4 percent and that this reduction of risk accumulated over time.

The researchers suggest to drug companies to begin studying with estrogen therapy as a treatment for glaucoma. You can read more about glaucoma in our other articles on this site.

Vitamin A�is an easily overlooked vitamin, yet it may have important functions in the body. This vitamin is fat soluble and comprises retinoids�such as retinols, retinals, retinoic�acids and retinyl esters.

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Vitamin A

Vitamin functions to�improve vision and is an important component of rhodopsin, a protein which is capable of absorbing light in the retinal receptors. This vitamin contributes to the normal functioning of the conjunctival membranes and the cornea. It also supports normal functioning of other organs in the body such as the heart, kidneys, lungs and others.

There are two forms of Vitamin A in our diet: preformed Vitamin A and provitamin A carotenoids. Pre-formed vitamin A is found in foods from animal sources such as fish, meat, dairy products and liver. Provitamin�A carotenoids include beta-carotene, alpha-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin. The body is capable of transforming these carotenoids into Vitamin A.

The two forms of Vitamin A are metabolized inside cells to retinal and retinoic�acids which are active forms of Vitamin A so that its biological functions are easily carried out. Other forms of carotenoids in food are lutein, lycopene and zeaxanthin; however they are not converted into vitamin A. The different forms of vitamin A are solubilised�into micelles in the lining of the intestines and are absorbed by the cells of the duodenum so that these carotenoids and esters are converted into retinol which are oxidized to retinoic�acid. Vitamin A is stored in the body as retinyl esters.

There are many sources of Vitamin A. Most Vitamin A can be derived from liver and fish oils; other good sources include eggs and milk which may also contain provitamin A. Vitamin A can also be obtained from leafy green vegetables, orange and green vegetables, tomato and tomato products, vegetable oils and fruits. Dairy products, fish, liver, fortified cereals, carrots, cantaloupe, broccoli and squash are also good sources of vitamin A. Vitamin A can also be taken in from dietary supplements such as supplements that contain retinyl�acetate or retinyl�palmitate. Vitamin D deficiency is rare in developed countries but may be common in developing countries who may have limited access to foods that contain preformed vitamin A. Infants may start having Vitamin A deficiency when they do not receive vitamin A from the breast milk or colostrums. In children, diarrhoea may predispose to vitamin A deficiency. In young children and pregnant mothers, lack of vitamin A gives a manifestation known as xeropthlamia�or night blindness. Xeropthalmia is a condition wherein a person fails to see in darkness or in low light. Blindness can be prevented by receiving adequate amounts of vitamin A. Other manifestations of Vitamin A deficiency include low iron levels and diarrhoea.

Pregnant women need extra Vitamin A for proper growth and development of fetuses and for their own growth and metabolism. Vitamin A deficiency during pregnancy may predispose to increased maternal and infant deaths and morbidity, increased risk for anemia and slow growth and development of infants.

Vitamin A Deficiency and Asthma

A recent study has shown that there is a link between prenatal vitamin A deficiency and postnatal airway hyperresponsiveness, a hallmark of asthma. In this study done by researchers from the Columbia University Medical Center, mice were studied and the results showed that short-term deficiency of this vitamin while the fetal lungs are forming can cause changes in the smooth muscles surrounding the airways. Later on in adult life, these offspring have lungs that respond to various environmental and pharmacological stimuli with excessive airway narrowing. These are characteristics of asthma. The findings were published in the Journal of Clinical Investigation.

To know more about Vitamin A, you can check out our other articles on this site.