�Treating certain risk factors may prevent Alzheimer’s Disease

New findings show that by treating risk factors one can not only� prevent cardiovascular disease but also Alzheimer’s. In a review paper on Alzheimer’s Disease and Associated Disorders, performed by Dr. Gustavo C. Roman, director of the Nantz National Alzheimer Center at the Methodist Neurological Institute in Houston, it is noted that if certain risk factors are treated the risk of dementia vascular and mixed dementia is significantly reduced.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is one of the most common forms of dementia that mainly affects older people. There is no cure for Alzheimer’s disease and once started the disease does not regress. There are several hypotheses have been proposed for Alzheimer’s disease. One of them is the cholinergic hypothesis, which postulates that a decrease in the amount of acetylcholine, a neurotransmitter in the brain, leads to Alzheimer’s disease. Another theory says that Alzheimer’s disease is actually caused by the accumulation of beta amilod in the brain. This hypothesis was supported by the fact that the gene that encodes beta amyloid precursor protein (APP) is found on chromosome 21 that is involved in Down syndrome. It seems that people with Down syndrome are prone to develop and Alzheimer’s disease after age 40. Another hypothesis that was proposed was that of neurofibrillary tangles accumulation in neuronal corpus.

The most common symptom of Alzheimer’s is memory loss. Of course, the symptoms depend on the stage of the disease. In the early stages of Alzheimer’s disease appear�mild �problems with memory and learning, without interfering too much with daily activity, but in severe forms of the disease patients may require ongoing care.

Now the review done by Dr. Gustavo C. Roman reveals that there are certain risk factors that lead to vascular dementia and mixed dementia that can be prevented. One of these factors is hypertension. It is known that untreated hypertension can lead to stroke. Depending on the artery affected brain, a stroke is associated with various neurological problems. In addition there have been studies that have shown that stroke greatly increases the likelihood that people with mild cognitive impairment develop Alzheimer’s later in life. Apart from hypertension, hyperlipidemia, along with diabetes, is a significant risk factor for Alzheimer’s.

Smoking is also a risk factor for dementia. Smoking leads to impaired cerebral microcirculation that�contributes to the de development of dementia. Another risk factor that affects circulation is insulin resistant diabetes. Patients with diabetes are two to three times more prone to Alzheimer’s.

Also, hyperhomocysteinemia�appears to be involved in causing Alzheimer’s. It should be noted however that hyperhomocysteinemia and Alzheimer’s patients tend to respond well to treatment with large doses of B vitamins. Finally we must not forget the role of diet and physical activity, which together reduce the risk of developing vascular dementia.

Intensive statin treatment best for cholesterol issues

According to a review published in the Annals of Pharmacotherapy, intensive statin administration is the most appropriate option for the treatment of high cholesterol and other dyslipidemias. The review also indicated that some statins are more effective than others and that other blood lipid lowering drugs have less effect. But besides drugs, in�order�to control cholesterol level, it should be corrected� the patients lifestyle: diet, physical activity and weight loss.

Treatment

The review examined treatment options for treating dyslipidemia: high (low density lipoproteins), �low HDL (high density lipoprotein), high�triglycerides etc. The findings�revealed �that it is better to increase the dose of statins�than add some other drugs��to�the treatment in order�to lower cholesterol.

Statins are drugs that reduce LDL cholesterol. Matt Ito, a professor of pharmacy practice at Oregon State University, author of the study, pointed out that statins are drugs proven to reduce by 30% the risk of heart attack and stroke. He said that the purpose of the review was to see if adding other drugs to statins brings benefit. But it was found that this does not reduces the problems and that only�increasing doses of statins helps. In addition,��he added that increasing the dose of statins beyond usually recommended did not increase the risk of side effects. It must be said that of the side effects muscle pain and elevated transaminases are the most common.

LDL is called bad cholesterol while HDL is the good cholesterol. LDL cholesterol is involved in plaque formation, ie atherosclerosis, a risk factor for myocardial infarction and stroke. HDL cholesterol is the fraction of cholesterol that protects against atherosclerosis. HDL removes cholesterol from plaque and transports it to the liver to be reused. HDL cholesterol rich foods are omega-3 fatty acids like fish (salmon), olive oil, etc.. Also, an increase in HDL cholesterol is produced�by moderate consumption of alcohol (wine) and eating whole grains.

Researchers call this therapy that uses a single statin “intensive monotherapy”. The aim is for the patient to reach a cholesterol level of 100mg/dl�or even lower values�in patients that have�associated risk factors. Researchers found that only two of the most prescribed statins are suitable for intensive montherapy: rosuvastatin�and atorvastatin. They concluded that other statins (fluvastatin, lovastatin, pitavastatin, pravastatin, and simvastatin) are not suitable for intensive treatment. But Ito added that the response to treatment varies from one individual to another. It is therefore possible that some patients go well with any of statins deemed inappropriate (fluvastatin, simvastatin, etc.).

Researchers are investigating NK cells for treating liver cancer

Researchers at the University of Southampton are investigating the best way to use natural killer cells for the treatment of hepatocarcinoma, the most common form of liver cancer. Natural killer cells are cells of the immune system and are currently used in the treatment of other cancers, especially cancers of the blood.

Natural killer cells are involved in innate immunity of the body. In other words, they react immediately when the body come in contact with viruses, bacteria and fight against microorganisms that can cause infection in the body. Moreover, they are involved in the control of tumor cell replication. Therefore, researchers have thought that natural killer cells can be manipulated to destroy tumor cells of HCC.

Microscope Research

Dr. Salim Khakoo, Professor of Hepatology, said that HCC�represents about 90% of all liver primitive cancers� and it is a� cancer difficult to treat. He and his team are trying to find a method that uses natural killer cells in order to treat �HCC. In other words, the study will be based on immunotherapy. Researchers will try to stimulate natural killer cells in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma by several methods: either by �the use of chemical stimulants or use of antibodies that activate natural killer cells. All�that researchers is to find the best method of activation of natural killer cells to use in order to destroy tumor cells.

HCC, the most common form of liver cancer primitive, almost always develop�on a�cirrhosis. It seems that HCC is the result of malignant degeneration of regenerative nodules in cirrhosis. Of course, apart from cirrhosis there are other causes, such as hepatitis C and B viruses, exposure to certain toxic compounds, etc.. Other less important causes are primary biliary cirrhosis, haemochromatosis, alcohol consumption, smoking.

HCC�symptoms are not specific. When there is a pre-existent chronic liver disease, the patient may start feeling worse because��jaundice or ascites may appear. Other symptoms of HCC�are right upper quadrant pain, bloating, anorexia, early satiety. Of course,�there are also symptoms such as�fatigue, weight loss, weakness etc. Other signs that can occur are due to metastasis to the lung, bones etc. It should be noted that symptoms such as poliglobulia, hypercalcemia, high blood pressure, cutaneous manifestations, may occur due to paraneoplastic manifestations.
In terms of treatment, it must be noted that treatment is chosen according to tumor stage and patient’s condition. If it is possible, the tumor can be surgically removed. Besides surgical resection, there are other ways of destroying or shrinking the tumor: radio-frequency ablation, chemoembolization, radiation, cryosurgery, etc..

Human Schlafen 11 Gene Expression Inhibits Replication Of HIV

Researchers at UC San Diego have recently discovered the anti-viral mechanism of a particular human gene that may shed light on why some HIV patients present high viremia levels while others are doing much better. The discovery, which was detailed in the last week’s edition of Nature magazine could also explain why some HIV infected patients do not progress to AIDS and show no symptoms of disease.

Researchers at UC San Diego have discovered that a gene named Human Schlafen 11 is responsible for the production of a protein able to inhibit the replication of HIV inside host cells. The protein acts by blocking viral protein synthesis inside the infected cells.

Some people with HIV develop AIDS rapidly and others can be HIV positive for decades and never really develop any symptoms of the disease,� said Michael David, a professor of biology at UC San Diego, who headed the research team. It's still unclear why that is, but one possibility is that the genetic variations in this protein, like in many other viral restriction factors, account for the differences in the susceptibility to the virus.�

Cells that lack the Human Schlafen 11 gene tend to have more HIV viral particles (can be observed as dots in the left picture) compared with cells that express the Human Schlafen 11 gene and therefore able to block viral protein synthesis.

Human Immunodeficiency virus

Due to the fact that the Human Schlafen 11 gene acts by blocking HIV protein synthesis, scientists are carrying out further research programs in order to observe whether variations of this particular gene can be linked to disease progression from HIV infection to AIDS. If this link is certainly established, the discovery might be the source for a new therapeutic target that could halt the progression of� HIV infection to AIDS as well as new HIV diagnostic tools and methods that may determine the risk of progression to AIDS of an infected individual.

If it's possible for the human cell to inhibit the synthesis of viral programs without affecting the synthesis of cellular proteins, it's possible that at some point a drug can do that, too,� said David. But our discovery is just the tip of the iceberg. There's a lot more work to be done. Whether this will have diagnostic or therapeutic value remains to be seen.�

The Human Schlafen 11 is a member of a 6 gene family normally found in humans and 9 gene family in laboratory mice, that are induced in cells of mammals in response to different kinds of infection. Their role is to release interferons (proteins with antiviral role). The first protein from the Sclafen family was discovered was back in 1998 by Steve Hedrick, biology professor.

David stated that he spent nearly 8 years to unravel the exact� Human Sclafen 11 role in mammal cells. He also added that they were also very surprised when a co-worker named Manqing Li noticed that Human Sclafen 11 was not to be found in a cell culture used to produce large amounts of HIV virus for the lab work.

When we put Schlafen 11 back into the cell line, we got over 90 percent inhibition of virus output,� David said, confirming that the gene was critical to inhibiting virus replication.

Although the Sclafen genes were known to exist for many years, David’s discovery is the first of its kind that points out its exact working mechanism at molecular level. The research team has now moved their attention to other Human Sclafen genes to investigate their anti-viral effects on viruses like the influenza virus or the virus that causes dengue fever.

The scientists are also collaborating with other researchers who supervise tissue banks that contain DNA samples taken from thousands HIV positive patients in order to establish a link between Schlafen 11 gene variation and evolution of symptoms in those patients.

Study abstract here.

Top 10 Foods That Boost Your Immune System Function

Infection, cancer and diseases occur when your immune system function is lowered, either because of the presence of microorganisms, whether as a result of aging or malnutrition. A body with important nutritional deficiencies will require a longer healing time after a possible disease as adequate dietary intake may shorten the duration of a disease simply because the immune system provides the raw material needed to fight infections.The daily diet can profoundly influence defenses against diseases and other measures like eliminating smoking, alcohol and stress reduction can bring a major contribution to boosting your immune sustem response. A healthy lifestyle, which contains in addition to a varied diet, a regular program of physical activity and a balanced socio-professional rate are factors that allow the body to function optimally.

Remember that for a balanced diet and healthy lifestyle and a healthy immune system you must eat a variety of foods, emphasizing plant products (vegetables, cereals, fruits), decrease the consumption of saturated fats (meat, cheese, stuffed meat, mince), trans fats (margarine), sugar, salt and alcohol. Eat oily fish at least 2 times a week, always choose skimmed or semi-skimmed milk products, use fruit as a dessert and try to reduce to the maximum sugar consumption. Eliminating smoking and practicing regular physical activity helps maintain a proper weight and boosts the immune system. Adapt the caloric intake to your personal needs so that you maintain a balance� between intake and general activity.

Foods That Boost The Immune System

Top 10 Foods That Boost Your Immune System

1) Red meat is a rich source of protein and minerals (iron, zinc, chromium, selenium) that the immune system needs to function efficiently. Adequate consumption of read meat helps you boost your immune system and heal more rapidly form disease and recover during convalescence as proteins are considered the building blocks of the organism.

2) The egg is a source of top quality protein (with all 8 essential amino acids), antioxidant vitamins (A and D) and minerals (iron, selenium, zinc). In case of infection, accelerated protein loss can be quickly compensated if your diet contains eggs.

3) Peppers and carrots are high in beta-carotene, phytonutrient with antioxidant properties that protect cells against harmful changes caused by free radicals. Provitamin A stimulates the production of antibodies and maintain the integrity of skin and mucous membranes.

4) Kiwi is the richest fruit in vitamin C , has antioxidant properties and increase resistance to disease.

5) Dairy and sour yogurt with live yeast also can help you boost your immune system function� and response to a range of bacteria and viruses.

6) Fatty fish (salmon, tuna, sardines) is rich in omega-3 essential fatty acids that have anti-inflammatory effects, they reduce acute inflammation and stimulates the body’s immune system processes that are necessary for disease defense.

7) Green tea contains a substance (L-theanine) that is able to raise by 5 times the body’s immune system action. The white blood cell activation that this active substance produces increases resistance against bacterial, viral and parasitic pathogens and also has antitumoral properties.

8) SUNFLOWER seeds contain omega-6 essential fatty acids, vitamin E and proteins that boost the immune system by increasing the efficiency of antibacterial mucosal barrier.

9) Strawberries, raspberries and berries besides quantities of vitamin C in their structure, containin phytonutrients with increased� antioxidant power, which boost your immune system response.

10) Garlic and onions contain powerful sulfur compounds that stimulate cell activity and increase resistance to disease. Garlic and onions posses antiviral, antifungal and antibacterial active ingredients like allicin that lowers the risk of infection.

Mephedrone may lead to permanent brain damage

Researchers at the University of Sydney found that mephedrone, one of the most popular street drugs, can lead to permanent brain damage. Craig Motbey, a PhD candidate in the University’s School of Psychology and lead author of the research, said that the addiction is very high and that young people come to consume large amounts of this drug in short periods of time.It should�be noted that this drug is illegal in Europe, Israel, Australia, New Zealand and USA. Known also as meow meow�or MCAT,�mephedrone� is a drug that belongs to the same class as methamphetamine. It is believed that its effects are similar to methamphetamine and ecstasy consumption.

Mephedrone

Researchers believe that�mephedrone�leads to cognitive impairment. Like other drugs, mephedrone�gives� euphoria, enhances mood�and stimulates mental function. Side effects of this drug are poor concentration, teeth grinding, hallucinations, depression, paranoia etc. There have�been described anorexia, palpitations, dyspnea, and others symptoms. Of course, as with other drug consumption, mephedrone leads to addiction. Furthermore, researchers believe that addiction is much faster and more powerful.

To see the effects of this drug on memory, the researchers conducted experiments on laboratory animals. After have administered�mephedrone�injections once a day for 10 days to the mice, the researchers divided mice into two groups. The first group was analyzed within one hour after the last injection and the second group was analyzed at several weeks. It was found that mice injected with mephedrone�had significant cognitive impairment. In addition researchers said the injuries are permanent since cognitive�function was evaluated�after several weeks. Motbey said that although they found what are that the effects of this drug on memory, they cannot �figure out what are the mechanisms by which this drug works. He�is hopeful�that through further studies�will help�find the explanation of how this drug affects memory.

Analysis the first group of�mice has led researchers to discover how this drug works on the brain. It seems that mephedrone� increases rapidly serotonin with rapid�catabolism of dopamine. This explains the euphoria (serotonin) and addiction (dopamine). It should be noted that although researchers observed these effects only on�the animals receiving high doses of mephedrone, this does not mean that this drug is safe in small doses. In addition, Motbey pointed out that the effects of this drug could be cumulative. In other words, low doses could lead to serious brain damage over time.

Children Treated With Inhaled Steroids Are Shorter Than Peers, According To Study

According to a study conducted�at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis and presented at the European Respiratory Society meeting in Vienna, Austria, researchers found that children treated with inhaled corticosteroids for asthma end up slightly shorter at their full adult height than children who don't use the drugs.

Asthma is a respiratory disorder that is manifested by paroxysmal dyspnea accompanied by cough and wheezing. Between dyspnea attacks, lung function is normal. Due to the fact that is a chronic disease, asthma requires long-term treatment with bronchodilators�and other drugs. Asthma management of asthma benefit from a wide range of drugs, such as bronchodilators (albuterol), which are very useful for short-term control of asthma or combinations of �corticosteroids (budesonide, fluticasone) and beta adrenergic�agonists�(formeterol) useful in long-term treatment. Other drug classes used in asthma control� are�mastocytes cell stabilizers such as nedocromil, but this type of drugs only prevents asthma attack. Leucotrine�inhibitors such as zafirlukast�and montelukast are also useful.

All these type of drugs used to treat asthma present side effects. Corticosteroid medications present both local and systemic side effects. are by far the most�harmful to the body. Most common local side effects are represented by hoarseness and throat irritation. Systemic adverse effects include weight gain, skin atrophy, cataracts, glaucoma, osteoporosis, high blood pressure and others.

Children With Asthma

The study involved more than 1,000 children ages 5-12 who were treated for mild to moderate asthma as part of the Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP) clinical trial. This children received treatment for more than four years and were divided into three groups. Children from the first group received� twice-daily budesonide, an inhaled corticosteroid drug, children from the second group received nedocromil, an inhaled non-steroid drug and children from the third group received placebo medication. All children received albuterol, a fast-acting medication to control acute asthma symptoms and oral corticosteroids as needed to control symptoms.

Scientists regularly followed 943 participants until they reach adult height, for girls the adult height was considered to be at the age of 18 years and for boys at the age of 20 years. Scientists found that children who received budesonide�(corticosteroid) were 1.2 cm shorter than those who received nedocromil or placebo. Children who experienced the slower growth were aged between 5-11 years old when they start using budesonide.

“This was surprising because in previous studies, we found that the slower growth would be temporary, not affecting adult height. But none of those studies followed patients from the time they entered the study until they had reached adult height.�, Dr. Robert C. Strunk, study’s senior author, said.

Electronic Cigarettes May Lead To Lung Damage According To New Study

According to new findings presented at the European Respiratory Society’s Annual Congress in Vienna , electronic cigarettes could�have harmful effects to the�lungs. Electronic cigarettes are devices,�with a design��that resembles to cigarettes,��through which nicotine is inhaled. Because electronic cigarettes do not contain any harmful substances or tobacco, they were considered safer than tobacco. However, electronic cigarettes health effects have not been studied very much.

Researchers at the University of Athens in Greece wanted to know what are the short-term�effects of these electronic devices. They conducted a study that included many participants, both smokers and nonsmokers. Of the 32 participants, 8 were nonsmokers�and 24 were smokers. Some of the smokers had normal respiratory function (11), while the other 13 had either asthma or COPD. All study participants had to use an electronic cigarette for 10 minutes. After 10 minutes, the researchers measured levels of airway resistance using spirometry�tests. What was found was that all participants had an increase in airway resistance. Moreover, this increase was statistically significant resistance in nonsmokers�(182% to 206%). In those with impaired respiratory function (COPD and asthma) electronic cigarettes had no immediate effect in terms of airway resistance. The researchers said that further studies are needed to evaluate whether the effects of electronic cigarettes are long-lasting.

Electronic Cigarettes

Electronic cigarettes are considered an alternative to tobacco or�even a�way to quit smoking. These devices have several advantages: are portable, they can be recharged and the amount of nicotine can be adjusted. Moreover, there are even� nicotine free devices. Although electronic cigarettes are considered safer and less harmful than smoking, there are few studies that evaluate the effects of these new devices on�health. The only substance in tobacco that is found in electronic cigarettes is nicotine.

Effects of nicotine in the body are multiple. After it�is inhaled, nicotine reaches the bloodstream and then�enters central nervous system. Nicotine�binds to nicotinic receptors and �triggers various effects. Some of them are well-known, such as pleasure or euphoria. There are also other effects of nicotine.�For example,�nicotine�causes cardiovascular effects, such as an increase in heart rate and blood pressure. It seems that nicotine also causes an increase in blood sugar. As for the central nervous system, nicotine has a stimulating effect. This is why, smoking is associated with�alertness and increased concentration. However, besides the stimulating effect, nicotine leads to addiction. As far as the carcinogenic effect is concerned, although it has not been shown that nicotine�acts alone as�a human carcinogen, it seems that it promotes tumor growth and angiogenesis in laboratory animal studies.

Potential Cure For Ovarian Cancer Using Nanoparticles

While following cancer-cell genomes, a high number of mutated, deleted or copied genes were discovered. This medical breakthrough gives researchers the possibility of finding new drug targets, but it’s almost impossible to have them all tested in a short period of time.

RNA-delivering nanoparticles were developed by MIT researchers in oder to give the possibility of a faster way to screen new drug targets in mice. Researchers from Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Broad Institute showed that these nanoparticles target an ID4 protein and this way shrink ovarian tumors.

“What we did was trying to set forth a pipeline where you start with all of the targets that are pouring out of genomics, and you sequentially filter them through a mouse model to figure out which ones are important. By doing that, you can prioritize the ones you want to target clinically using RNA interference, or develop drugs against,” said professor Sangeeta Bhatia.

There are many potential targets for cancer drug treatments, but there is also a high number of targets that can not be drugged. This means that the proteins don’t have any receptors where a traditional drug could bind to them. The main part of nanoparticles is that by delivering small amounts of RNA that can shut off a particular gene, they might help making those proteins that can not be drugged more accessible.

“If we could figure out how to make this work [in humans], it would open up a whole new class of targets that hadn’t been available”, said professor William Hahn from the Harvard Medical School. William Hahn is also the leader of Project Achilles, focused on identifying new possible targets for cancer drugs.

Thanks to Project Achilles, Hahn’s team were able to test the functions of numerous disrupted genes in ovarian cancer cells, which considerably reduced the potential targets list. Moreover to identify a good drug target the scientists had to turn off the responsible genes after the tumor appears.

A fast and efficient way to turn off these genes is through RNA interference. During this process, short strand of RNA bind to the messenger RNA, that delivers instructions on how to build proteins from the cell’s nucleus to the rest of the cell. After bounding, the mRNA molecules are destroyed and this way, proteins never get made.

Nano particles

The researchers’ main purpose is to create a “mix and dose” technique which would give the researchers the possibility to mix up RNA-delivery particles that target a particular gene, then inject them into mice. They have chosen to focus on ID4 proteins because of its over expression in almost a third of high-grade ovarian tumors. The gene is involved in embryonic growth which means it gets shut down early in life and reactivated later in ovarian tumors.

A new type of RNA-delivering nanoparticles was created in order to target the ID4. This nanoparticles can target and penetrate tumors for the first time. Bhatia’s team created the particles with a small protein fragment on their surface, which allows them to penetrate tumor cells. The particles’ protein fragments are drawn p32 proteins found on tumor cells.

Inside the nanoparticles there are strands of RNA mixed with proteins that help them survive until they are encapsulated in the cells’ membranes as endosomes. Thanks to this RNA-protein mixture, nanoparticles can travel through the endosomal membrane, enter the cell’s main compartment and start breaking down mRNA.

During their study, researchers discovered that the treatment with RNAi nanoparticles eliminated most of the mice ovarian tumors. Furthermore they are currently using the nanoparticles for potential targets in other types of cancer. They are also considering the possibility of developing the particles as a new, effective treatment for ovarian cancer.

New Breakthrough in Cancer Treatment

A new discovery made by researchers from the Queen’s University Belfast could lead to an increase in the effectiveness of throat and cervical cancer treatment. The new discovery could be the starting point of new therapies that would treat the tumor whilst targeting the non-cancerous cells surrounding it.

The research team has discovered that the tissue surrounding the tumor, the stroma, is directly linked to the growth of cervical and throat cancer. This study opens doors for future treatment schemes that would target the stroma instead of targeting the cancerous cells, thus preventing the cancerous cells from spreading any further.

The study has been published in the journal��European Molecular Biology Organization.�“Cancer spreads as the result of two-way communication between the cancer cells in a tumour and the non-cancerous cells in the surrounding tissue”, said Professor Dennis McCance, the lead author of the study.

Previous studies have shown that cancerous cells are programmed to invade the neighboring tissues. Professor McCance adds that the non-cancerous cells are also programmed to aid the invasion of the cancerous cells in the healthy tissue from the near vicinity. He also added that if the messages sent by the healthy cells can be turned off, it would result in the inhibition of the cancerous invasion.

Cancerous Cells

�The research team discovered that a particular protein is involved in regulating the communication pathway between the healthy tissue and the cancerous cells. This protein, known as the Retinoblasoma protein (Rb), if activated, leads to the decrease of the factors that encourage cancerous invasion.

The Retinoblastoma protein can be found in both cancerous and non-cancerous tissue. Its role in the growth of cancer cells is already known, however, this is the first time that researchers discover the role of the protein in healthy tissue. Professor McCance used 3D tissue samples that were grown inside a laboratory and used to replicate the stroma that surrounds the throat and cervix tumors.

“By specifically targeting pathways controlled by the Rb protein, it would be possible to switch-off the messages that encourage cancer cells to invade, and inhibit the spread of the tumor”, noted Professor McCance, whilst also adding that their research was focused only on throat and cervical cancer. There is a possibility that the Retinoblastoma protein or other proteins that can be found in the healthy tissues that surround other types of cancer could have a similar role in the spread of cancerous cells.