Depressed Patients Less Able To Store Information, According To New Study

Researchers found that people suffering from depression are less able to store information because their brains are less plastic and adaptable. The experiment, conducted by the Ssientists�at Karolinska�Institute has shown that D-serine, a substance synthesized by astrocytes, may improve memory function.

According to�Mia Lindskog, biologist and Assistant Professor at Karolinska�Institutet’s�Department of Neuroscience, the research�team was able to heal memory-related disorders by administering D-serine. The experiment was conducted on�FSL rats, bred with a� special predisposition to depression. First of all, the animals were tested� to see if they�present symptoms�of human depression. In the first test,� the rats were shown different objects which they had to recognize. With�the second test,� scientists traced other�depression symptoms like�apathy: the rats�were placed in a container with water and observed�whether�they are�trying to jump�out of the�container or simply swim around. In both�cases, the tests�were positive, regarding memory and apathy when compared with� normal mice. After these two tests, the researchers injected D-serine�to� the rats. Memory improved significantly, but this substance had no effect on apathy.

Depression

Dr Lindskog� pointed out the experiment revealed that�the two symptoms may be influenced independently of�one anothers. Furthermore, researchers have studied the�synaptic activity�in the�hippocampus of the rats, a very�important region of the brain involved in the memory�process. What they found was that in�depressed�mice�there was a more intense activity at this level than�in normal�counterparts. However, when researchers�tried to increase synaptic transmission, they found that the�brain of depressed�rats�was unresponsive, unlike normal mice; when D-serine was administered,�memory function significantly improved.

D-serine�is a substance secreted by astrocytes,�glial cells that are star-shaped . Astrocytes�have�many roles in the�normal functioning of the�brain, one of which is biochemical support of endothelial cells forming the blood-brain barrier. Also, astrocytes�play a key�role in repairing nervous tissue after tratumatic�injury as well�in maintaining ion balance. In the brain, D-serine�is synthesized from L-serine, and serves�as a neurotransmitter by activating NMDA receptors.

Dr Lindskog�hopes that these experiments�will lead�to the discovery of new therapies for depression. Although D-serine does not have a good permeability�regarding�the blood-brain barrier, the mechanism�that was�identified can be�used�for other therapeutic strategies�in order to�enhance plasticity of the brain �and improve memory.

Street Drug ‘Bath Salts’ Acts By Mimicking Cocaine And Methamphetamine

The so-called bath salts,�the�new drug used�more and�more in the United States and available for purchase�on the Internet,�has an effect that mimics two strong narcotics, amphetamines and cocaine.�This new drug�is included�on the list of illegal synthetic drugs.

Dr. Louis J. De Felice of Virginia Commonwealth University’s School of Medicine in Richmond, said that a drug like ‘bath salts’ with this type of combined effects was never encountered before. Methamphetamine and cocaine act in the brain in two opposite ways. Theoretically, the existence of a� drug that combines the effects of these drugs would be impossible, but�with so-called bath salts, the effect is surprisingly possible.

Bath Salt

The research will be presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Biophysical�Society (BPS), held in February. 25-29 in San Diego, California.
Amphetamine is a psychostimulant�synthetic drug, which speeds�the body’s response. Physical effects of amphetamine include hyperactivity, headache, tachycardia, diaphoresis, diarrhea, dilated pupils, vasoconstriction, blurred vision, insomnia, arrhythmias, tremors, convulsions, heart attack and even death. As for the psychological�aspect, the most important effects are euphoria, concentration, and psychomotor agitation, irritability, paranoia.�Moreover,�amphetamine produces addiction and depression.

Amphetamine acts in the brain by modulating neurotransmitters, such as dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine. Particularly, amphetamine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic space. Cocaine�is another�central nervous system stimulant, that draws its effects from coca leaves. Like amphetamine, cocaine increases the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic cleft�by blocking�the binding protein of this neurotransmitter. In other words, cocaine is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor.

According to the study, the so-called bath salts contain two similar chemical structures that produce different effects on the dopamine transport system.

The two components are MEPH�(Mephedrone), an agent that, like amphetamine, stimulates dopamine release. The other component is methylenedioxypyrovalerone�(MDPV), which, like cocaine, is a dopamine reuptake inhibitor. Both components increase the concentration of dopamine in the synaptic gap and induce feelings of euphoria, but by different mechanisms. The study shows that the two mechanisms are not mutually exclusive, they actually enhance one another.

This study is part of a larger project,�whose purpose was to study how�METH and�amphetamine affect the dopamine transporter system. Thus, it was found that both chemicals have an effect that persists for more than 30 minutes after drug removal. It was also found that the drugs found in bath salts (MEPH�and MDPV) are synthetic derivatives of Cath, khat shrub (Catha edulis).

However, researchers still do not know the mechanism underlying the persistent effects of these drugs. It also remains a mystery how two different mechanisms cause the same effect. According to the American Association of Poison Control Centers, the number of bath salts used in 2011 increased 10 times compared to 2010.

Experimental Treatment Slows Huntington’s Disease Progression

Huntington’s�disease is basically a dominant genetic disorder characterized by chorea and progressive cognitive deterioration�with a sudden onset during the middle age period. It can only be diagnosed�by�genetic testing. To be more specific, Huntington’s disease leads to sudden uncontrolled movements, mental and emotional deterioration. Lifetime expectancy ib about fifteen years after the disease has been diagnosed. Until now, the only management of the disease consisted of��treating the symptoms it presents, and�the progressive nature of the disease could not be reversed. Over the past decade, hopes for a cure�for this�debilitating�disease are up as�several breakthroughs�in the�medical field emerged.

Researchers have discovered that specific enzymes are in fact the culprit behind the effects and the onset itself of Huntington’s disease. These enzymes are called HDACs. Their role is to enhance the action of the mutation that is�responsible for causing the disease, thus worsening its devastating effects. Experimental drugs�that work by blocking�the HDACs�drugs drastically reduce the risk�of further mutations.

MRI Huntington Disease

The main author of this research, Professor Robert Lahue�of National University of Ireland Galway’s Centre for Chromosome Biology explains the�idea on which the study was based�“Ongoing mutations�in the brain of Huntington’s patients are thought to drive progression of the disease, thus our discovery suggests that inhibiting HDAC�function slows down the mutation process, and thereby could slow disease progression. A key finding of the research was to pinpoint specific HDACs for selective inhibition.”

Currently, several research laboratories in the US�and have begun�testing the HDAC�inhibitor in order�asses its�efficiency and safety, using laboratory�models of�Huntington’s disease. Professor Lahue�along with his research team expressed their�desire to�collaborate�with these labs in order to thoroughly evaluate the effect of HDAC inhibitors.

However, the discovery is still in the experimental phase and�Professor Lahue clearly states�that “It is very exciting that basic research at National University of Ireland Galway, funded by Science Foundation Ireland, has created a new possibility for helping Huntington’s patients and their families.”

The results of the�study may also consist of�an excellent�base for�further research towards�new treatment options for�several other neurological disorders, such as myotonic dystrophy type I, which also seems to be caused by the same type of mutation as�the Huntington’s disease.

Study Shows Link Between Pancreatic Hormone And Heart Damage

UC Davis researchers have found that amylin, a pancreatic hormone, is linked with severe heart failure in obese and diabetic patients. The study conducted on animal model revealed that amylin, the hormone that produces satiety after eating, accumulates in the heart muscle and contributes to major cardiac dysfunction.

Amylin is an amyloidogenic�peptide co-secreted with insulin by pancreatic beta cells and it s overexpression�seems to occur in the prediabetic�stage. Normally, amylin circulates in the blood� with insulin, the hormone that regulates glycemia, and in relatively small amounts.

The study, led by Sanda�Despa, an� assistant�professor of pharmacology at UC Davis,�emphasises that obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus are linked to cardiomyopathy, independent of hypertension and coronary artery disease. As heart failure is the major cause of death in obese and cardiac people, reducing the level of amylin hormone�could not only�improve cardiac function, but also prevent potential�complications. Studies conducted on both normal and failing� donated hearts, showed that, in thin people, there was no or little amylin buildup. However, in obese and diabetic patients, there has been found extensive deposits of amylin organized in fibers formed of 10 or 20 oligomers. Moreover, accumulation of amylin has also been found in overweight people but not obese people. It is worth mentioning that amylin accumulates�not only in the�heart muscle, but also in pancreas. The overexpression of amylin is responsible for beta cells death and progression to type 2 diabetes mellitus. Similar buildups have been found in kidneys in type 2 diabetes mellitus patients, which confirms the fact that amylin accumulates in other organs, besides heart muscle an pancreas.

Scientists found that amylin oligomers�link to the membrane of the heart muscle cells in charge of heart beats. Consequently, the permeability for calcium ions increases and eventually�the myocites�die. Florin Despa,an assistant professor of pharmacology at UC Davis and senior author of the study, is optimistic about this new discovery. He�thinks�that substances that prevent amylin from shaping into oligomers�could reduce heart failure. He also said that the role of amylin in cardiac dysfunction has been overlooked because this hormone circulates in small amounts in blood. Another reason was that the form of amylin expressed by rats used in experiments is different from the one expressed by humans.

In order to detect amylin oligomers�in human and rat heart tissues, the researchers used immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence�and Western blot. Cardiac dysfunction�in the rats was assessed�by�investigating the�function of� normal myocites� and those myocites deteriorated by the accumulation of amylin.

Alzheimer's Disease Study Shows How The Disease Progresses

Scientists at the Wellcome Trust and Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute in Cambridge New have made new progresses in the understanding of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The study, published this� in Science Translational Medicine, highlights the connection between Alzheimer’s disease and Down’�s �syndrome.

The scientists used human induced pluripotent cell� donated by volunteers with Down’s syndrome (trisomy 21).�The link between Down syndrome and AD�relies on the fact that people with Down syndrome�have an extra gene copy that encodes the amyloid precursor protein (APP) and develop early onset of AD. Furthermore, researchers found that cortical neurons generated from stem cells patients with Down’ syndrome develop AD over months in culture, rather than years in vivo.

MRI Alzheimer

Alzheimer’ disease is the common form of dementia that leads to profound impairment of cognition and behavior.�It is a gradual process, but incurable. The�major symptoms are loss of long-term�memory, confusion, irritability,�language problems, disorientation. There are many hypotheses regarding the cause of the disease and of them is the amyloid hypothesis. Due to a genetic mutation, there is an overproduction in the brain of a� small protein called amyloid beta, which derives from a precursor, called APP (amyloid precursor protein).�Normally, these protein fragments are broken down and eliminated, but in AD these fragments accumulate�and form insoluble plaques.�The presence of amyloid plaques, one of the hallmarks in AD, are thought to participate to the degradation of nerve cells in the brain and to subsequent symptoms of AD. Another characteristic feature of AD is the tau protein, or neurofibrillary tangles. Neurofibrillary tangles are insoluble twisted fibers which formed microtubules. These microtubules enable the transport of nutrients and substances from one part of the nerve cell to another. In AD the protein tau is abnormal and the microtubule structures breakdown.

Dr. Rick Livesey, who led the study, stresses the fact that,up until now, it was difficult to monitor the disease over time. Using human model cells is not only time-saving, but also it helps the�scientists�control� the disease properly. He also underlined that the cell stem technique offers a closer model of how human brain is functioning and reveals major aspects of AD.

This is a new step forward to identifying and creating new therapeutic strategies in Alzheimer’s disease. The discovery not only help us understand how the AD evolves, but also help us study new treatment for the disease.

Newly Classified Subtype Of Ovarian Cancer Susceptible To Anti-Angiogenic Drugs

A new subtype of ovarian cancer has been identified by the scientists at Dana-Farber Cancer Institute in Boston. Researchers discovered that the new subtype is able to create its own blood vessels, therefore anti-angiogenic drugs might be very effective in future treatment schemes.

Researchers suggest that this subtype might be responsible for almost a third of all cancers that occur on the surface of the ovaries. Samples from more than 1,500 cancer patients have been analyzed, leading to new studies that aim to discover whether or not this new subtype can benefit from anti-angiogenic therapy.

“Unlike breast cancer, where we can distinguish different subtypes based on their genetic signatures, ovarian cancer has been viewed as a monolithically homogeneous disease – each tumor very much like every other”, says John Quackenbush, PhD.

Current data shows that ovarian cancer is responsible for almost 15,000 annual deaths in the United States alone, making it one of the leading causes of cancer death. The newly classified subtype is a high grade epithelial tumor, meaning that tumor cells, derived from the epithelial tissue, appear as highly abnormal under the microscope.

The new subtype was discovered by researchers after scanning numerous cancerous cell genes from 129 patients that were in an advanced stage. After running the genes through an algorithm called rISIS, the results were four new ovarian cancer subtypes. After analyzing the results, researchers found that in one particular subtype most of the active genes were also known to have a role in angiogenesis. This new array of genes is referred to as the “angiogenesis signature”.

Gene Study

One disadvantage of gene studies is that most of the times, results are not reproducible. Due to different laboratory procedures, various labs can reach discrepant results. In order to confirm the results, researchers from the Dana-Farber Institute analyzed data from gene studies found in multiple published articles, therefore reaching a total patient number of 1,606. The result of the analysis confirmed the theory. It has also been found that the patients that suffer from this particular subtype tend to have a more aggressive tumor.

“With this study, we’ve shown that serous ovarian cancer exists in at least one distinct subtype at the molecular level, raising the possibility that it will be vulnerable to therapies directed at its molecular weaknesses.”, says Ursula Matulonis, MD.

This study requires a clinical trial in order to determine whether or not medication that blocks angiogenesis will be effective in patients that suffer from the newly discovered ovarian cancer subtype. Angiogenesis inhibiting medication has already been given to ovarian cancer patients, and more than 30 percent have benefited from the treatment.

The scientists at the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute affirm that the newly classified subtype will greatly influence the treatment of numerous ovarian cancer patients.

Colposcopic Examination With Polarized Light Can Improve Cervical Cancer Diagnosis

A team of researchers�conducted a study according to which polarized light can improve the ability to detect precursory lesions of cervical cancer. With this findings they hope�to reduce the number of unnecessary biopsies and surgical procedures,�as this type of light is more focused than radial light which scatters in all directions.

If the result of a Pap smear is abnormal, then the therapeutic approach requires a colposcopic�exam (with radial light and magnification of the area) to view�whether the cervix presents suspicious lesions. If suspicious lesions are present on the cervix, those areas are biopsied.

With this study, the researchers are trying to determine if a colposcopic exam which is using polarized light has a higher ability to detect precancerous lesions of the cervix and if this examination can reduce the number of unnecessary biopsies and the patient’s discomfort.

“Using both types of light to examine the cervix may give us additional perspective so we can find more disease and avoid treating something that does not need it”, said Dr. Daron G. Ferris, colposcopist, family medicine physician and Director of the Gynecologic Cancer Prevention Center at Georgia Health Sciences University.

In this study,��300 women were included with an age�over 18 years . First, the researchers�performed a classic colposcopic�exam (with radial light and magnification) and marked the areas that looked suspicious. After this exam, they did a colposcopic exam with polarized light to see if the results of both examination correlate before a biopsy is performed. “If we use polarized light, how does that change what we can see?”, Dr. Ferris said.

Colposcopy

Colposcopic�exam with polarized light can be most effective in young women, because in this cases the normal immature cells are more difficult to be distinguished from cancerous cells. Because the skin from the surface of the cervix of young women is thin, it could represent an easy target for infection by human papilloma virus, which is one of the primary causal agent of cervical cancer.

“If polarized light eliminates cases where it’s not clear whether the area is worrisome or not, that is going to reduce the number of biopsies. We want to see if it adds value.”, said Dr. Farris. Another problem of diagnosis is represented by the fact that, sometimes, biopsies are misinterpreted, leading to unnecessary surgical procedures.

Polarized light, because is focusing its energy in one direction, can help the physicians to have a better look on a cervix examination and to detect with greater accuracy areas that look suspicious. In those areas, blood vessels are dilated and randomly distributed. With a normal colposcopic�exam, a physician is only looking at the superficial blood vessels, but on a colposcopic exam with polarized light, he can see 1 millimeter below the surface of the cervix.

This study was�performed�due to�the physician’s�dissatisfaction�regarding classic colposcopic�exam�that can miss a diagnosis of�precancerous lesions. Researchers now�hope that this new colposcopic examination with polarized light will make the diagnosis of precancerous lesions more accurate than before.

Patients With Inflammatory Bowel Disease May Have An Increased Risk Of Skin Cancer

A certain increased risk for developing skin cancer�may be found in some patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease. This particular�risk can be also increased by immunosuppressant drugs (commonly used for treating inflammatory bowel disease). The two studies which approached this matter were published in the official journal of the American Gastroenterological Association.

Inflammatory bowel disease refers to a group of diseases of the digestive system, with inflammation as the main symptom. The�inflammatory bowel diseases are�: ulcerative colitis and Crohn’s disease. Ulcerative colitis occurs in the intestine, and Crohn’s disease can involve any part of the digestive tract, from mouth to anus, but commonly occurs in the small intestine or colon. When inflammation is severe the disorder is in active stage and manifestations are evident. When the degree of inflammation is low and the�patient�has no�symptoms, the disease is considered to be in remission stage.

Researchers, in their first study� linked thiopurines use (immunosuppressant medication class) to a significantly nonmelanoma skin cancer risk, in patietiens before�the age�of 50�suffering from inflammatory bowel disease. There are no specific screening methods for skin cancers in�patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease. The increased risk for developing skin cancer�was highlighted in all patients suffering from inflammatory bowel disease who received thiopurines. The risk�of developing cancer�also increased with age. The conclusion is that patients on thiopurines, should stay away from other skin cancer risk factors such as UV radiation, and visit their dermatologist on a regular basis according to Laurent Peyrin-Biroulet, PhD leading author of the study.

Nonmelanoma skin cancers include basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma�that together, are responsible for the most diagnosed cancer types in North America. Nonmelanoma skin cancer is constantly diagnosed in patients treated with immunosuppressive medications.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

In their second study, researchers established that�men patients suffering from inflammatory bowel syndrome, may present a baseline increased risk for basal cell carcinoma, and linked the immunosuppressant thiopurines�medication class use to an increased squamous cell carcinoma risk.

All patients with inflammatory bowel�syndrome�should be aware of the skin cancer risk and clinicians should be extra vigilant when it comes to patients on thiopurines.

On the other hand, these results will probably not exclude thiopurines as a treatment option for inflammatory bowel disease syndrome. The benefits of thiopurines outweigh the small increased risk of developing nonmelanoma skin cancers�according to Dr. Sigh.

ADHD Drugs Pose No Risk For Cardiac Events

Attention- deficit / hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a mental disorder that especially affects�children�of�both sexes but it is�more commonly seen in boys.�According to the�name of the disease, its main symptoms are: inattention, hyperactivity and impulsivity. Medications used to treat ADHD act on hyperactivity, thus contributing to an�increased attention and motivation.

Among the drugs that are�used to treat ADHD�methylphenidate, dexmethylphenidate, dextroamphetamines, amphetamine salts, atomoxetine�or pemoline,�some�were�suspected of�increasing the risk for cardiovascular events like stroke, acute myocardial infarction or sudden cardiac death. That�was a real problem for�the families of those children who had to decide�whether�their kids should take those�drugs or not.

ADHD Cardiac Risk

Cardiac events were commonly reported�and in 2008 the American Heart Association recommended performing an electocardiography before prescribing ADHD medication.

In the study led by Cooper W.O and sponsored by the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality (AHRQ) and by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), data from over one million people aged 2-24 years was collected,�patients being�followed on average 2.1 years.

After detailed analysis, only 81 cardiac events were discovered�and by comparing the study group to the control group (�drug�users vs. nonusers), there were no significant differences ( including those who were taken methylphenidate,�as it is the most prescribed ADHD drug). This study confirms the results of a previous study published in may 2011.

In addition to this, Dr. Lenard A.A.,�former president of American Professional Society of ADHD and Related Disorders (APSARD) said: “Overall, I think clinicians should tell families that ADHD is a significant disorder that needs to be treated. And there needs to be a discussion of the potential risks and benefits of all medications considered, especially when treating children”.

Generally, stimulants can increase the heart rate and the blood pressure�and children should be screened for a heart condition before taking any stimulants. Although this study showed that the prevalence of cardiac events in users of stimulants did not differ significantly from control subjects, probably they should be�monitored more�prudently for cardiovascular�events because we are talking about the lives of children and adolescents, as confirmed by�a FDA spokesman who stated that “A small to modest increase in risk cannot be excluded”

Healthcare professionals should take care when it comes to stimulant products. Atomoxetine as a general rule should not be used in patients with serious heart problems, or for whom an increase in blood pressure or heart rate would be problematic.

Study – Uncouncios Language Learning Skills

Many of us had to learn one, two or more foreign languages during our lives. Some learned quicker, some�found it more difficult to master a foregin language. Have you ever asked yourselves how is it possible for little kids to learn 2-3 different languages at the same time, but when they get bigger, during school or� adulthood, it gets harder and harder�to learn a second language? Linguists have studied this phenomena and called it implicit language learning.

What does�implicit language learning acttualy mean? It means they have the capacity to learn the pronunciation of words and gather them in phrases, different words from different languages at the same time, but still making a sentence with words�from a�single language.

How does it work? How do they know when to use a specific word or a preposition? The linguists have asked themselves how is this possible.

Dr. Williams G. from Cambridge University � Department of Theoretical and Applied Linguistics and Dr. Leung J. from the University of Hong Kong, have tried to solve this mystery by leading an experiment in which they formed a new language, new�and pronunciation rules for words.

Participants were asked to learn this new rules in a given time. The simplest example is the rules for the�, pronounced differently according to its use: when used to describe a close object they should use gi� or ro�, and for a far object ul� or ne��, then�observed if the participants make a correlation with a second meaning. They�asked in case of an animate noun� gi� and ul��to be used�and for an inanimate noun, ro� and ne�.�Afterwards the�participants were asks to use this new rules in given sentences.

During the tests, the linguists focused on directing attention to the part of the sentence that contains the new language rules and other parts of the phrase that�seem to be chosen unconsciously.

Language Learning Skills

According to Dr. Williams, participants generally chose the right answers We found significantly above-chance selection of sentence constructions that were �grammatically correct' according to the hidden pattern. Yet, the participants had no awareness of what they had learned or how. Moreover, we were able to show learning of the same material by native speakers of two typologically very different languages, English and Cantonese.�

This is very important discovery as�it can improve teachers�teaching skills , because learning a new language doesn't mean only knowing�many words and�some grammar skils, but knowing when to apply them. Implicit memory seems to help� achieveing that concluded Dr Wiliams